NO 


SCOTT 


Detwey 


IIEVISEP IDITION 


PARAGRAPH-WRITING 


A   RHETORIC    FOR   COLLEGES 


BY 
FRED   NEWTON  SCOTT 

PROFESSOR  OF  RHETORIC  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 
AND 

JOSEPH   VILL1ERS   DENNEY 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  IN  OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY 


REWRITTEN  AND  MUCH  ENLARGED 


AL.LYN    AND    BACON 
Boston  anfc  Chicago 


COPYRIGHT,  1909.  BY 
FRED  NEWTON  SCOTT  AND 
JOSEPH  V1LL1ERS  DENNEY 


IDA 


PREFACE. 

THE  idea  which  underlies  this  work  and  which  has  given 
to  it  its  distinctive  place  and  character  was  thus  set  forth 
in  the  preface  to  the  first  edition :  — 

Learning  to  write  well  in  one's  own  language  means  in 
large  part  learning  to  give  unity  and  coherence  to  one's 
ideas.  It  means  learning  to  construct  units  of  discourse 
which  have  order  and  symmetry  and  coherence  of  parts. 
It  means  learning  theoretically  how  such  units  are  made, 
and  practically  how  to  put  them  together;  and  further,  if 
they  turn  out  badly  the  first  time,  how  to  take  them  apart 
and  put  them  together  again  in  another  and  better  order. 
The  making  and  re-making  of  such  units  is  in  general 
terms  the  task  of  all  who  produce  written  discourse. 

The  task  of  the  teacher  of  those  who  produce  written 
discourse,  it  follows,  is  in  great  part  setting  students  to 
construct  such  units,  explaining  the  principles  upon  which 
the  units  are  made,  arousing  a  sense  that  they  are  units 
and  not  mere  heaps  or  nebulous  masses,  and  (hoc  opus, 
hie  labor  est)  correcting  departures  from  unity,  order,  and 
coherence  when  such  departures  occur. 

Work  of  this  kind  on  the  part  of  writer  or  of  teacher 
presupposes  a  unit  of  discourse.  Of  these  units  there  are 
three,  —  the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  and  the  essay  or 
whole  composition.  Which  of  these  three  is  best  adapted, 
psychologically  and  pedagogically,  to  the  end  proposed? 
The  sentence  may  be  rejected  at  the  outset  as  at  once  too 
simple  and  too  fragmentary.  .  .  .  Moreover,  as  Professor 

iii 

421604 


iy  PREFACE. 

Barrett  Wendell  has  pointed  out  (English  Composition, 
•p.  117),  the  sentence  is  properly  a  subject  of  revision,  not 
of  prevision,  —  good  sentences  are  produced  by  criticising 
them  after  they  are  written  rather  than  by  planning  them 
beforehand.  Putting  the  sentence  aside,  then,  what  shall 
be  said  of  the  paragraph  and  the  essay  ?  Of  the  two  the 
essay  is  theoretically  the  more  proper  unit  of  discourse. 
But  is  it  always  so  in  practice?  Is  it  not  true  that  for 
students  at  a  certain  stage  of  their  progress  the  essay  is  too 
complex  and  too  cumbersome  to  be  appreciated  as  a  whole  ? 
Aristotle  long  ago  laid  down  the  psychological  principle 
which  should  govern  the  selection  of  a  structural  unit: 
"  As  for  the  limit  fixt  by  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  great- 
est consistent  with  simultaneous  comprehension  is  always 
the  best."  If  students  who  have  written  essays  for  years 
have  with  all  their  labor  developed  but  a  feeble  sense  for 
structural  unity,  may  the  reason  not  lie  in  the  fact  that  the 
unit  of  discourse  employed  has  been  so  large  and  so  com- 
plex that  it  could  not  be  grasped  with  a  single  effort  of 
the  mind  ? 

If  there  is  a  measure  of  truth  in  what  has  here  been 
urged,  it  would  appear  that  for  certain  periods  in  the  stu- 
dent's development  the  paragraph,  as  an  example  of  struc- 
tural unity,  offers  peculiar  advantages.  The  nature  of  these 
advantages  has  already  been  suggested.  They  are,  in  brief, 
as  follows :  The  paragraph,  being  in  its  method  practically 
identical  with  the  essay,  exemplifies  identical  principles  of 
structure.  It  exemplifies  these  principles  in  small  and 
convenient  compass  so  that  they  are  easily  appreciable  by 
the  beginner.  Further,  while  the  writing  of  the  paragraph 
exercises  the  student  in  the  same  elements  of  structure 
which  would  be  brought  to  his  attention  were  he  drilled  in 
the  writing  of  essays,  he  can  write  more  paragraphs  than 
he  can  write  essays  in  the  same  length  of  time ;  hence  the 
character  of  the  work  may  be  made  for  him  more  varied, 


PREFACE.  V 

progressive,  and  interesting.  If  the  paragraph  thus  suits 
the  needs  of  the  student,  it  has  even  greater  advantages 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher.  The  bugbear  of  the 
teacher  of  Rhetoric  is  the  correctinjg  of  essays.  When 
the  compositions  are  long  and  crude  and  errors  abound, 
the  burden  sometimes  becomes  almost  intolerable.  In 
many  cases  it  is  a  necessary  burden  and  must  be  borne 
with  patience,  but  this  is  not  always  so.  Since  the  student 
within  the  limits  of  the  paragraph  makes  the  same  errors 
which  he  commits  in  the  writing  of  longer  compositions, 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  course  the  written  work  may 
profitably  be  shortened  from  essays  to  paragraphs.  Para- 
graph-writing has  the  further  advantage  that,  if  necessary, 
the  composition  may  be  re-written  from  beginning  to  end, 
and,  most  important  of  all,  when  completed  is  not  too  long  for 
the  teacher  to  read  and  criticise  in  the  presence  of  the  class. 
Finally,  the  paragraph  furnishes  a  natural  introduction 
to  work  of  a  more  difficult  character.  When  the  time 
comes  for  the  writing  of  essays,  the  transition  from  the 
smaller  unit  to  its  larger  analogue  is  made  with  facility. 

To  this  fundamental  idea  the  authors  in  the  work  of 
revision  and  enlargement  have  chosen  to  adhere,  being 
convinced  both  of  its  theoretical  soundness  and  its  practical 
utility.  In  adapting  the  work,  however,  to  the  present  needs 
of  college  and  university  classes,  they  have  made  so  many 
modifications  in  general  plan  and  in  detail  that  the  result 
is  virtually  a  new  book.  Among  the  changes  and  additions 
which  will  be  of  special  interest  to  teachers  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following :  — 

1.  The  scope  of  the  theoretical  part  has  been  extended 
to  embrace  all  pure  types  of  compositions.  In  accordance 
with  this  plan,  the  book  opens  with  a  discussion  of  the 
Art  of  Composition  and  the  Organic  Structure  of  Discourse, 
after  which  the  two  leading  structural  forms,  the  Para- 


vi  PREFACE. 

graph  and  the  Whole  Composition,  are  taken  up  in  turn. 
This  order  makes  possible  a  treatment  at  once  more  inclu- 
sive and  more  logical  than  that  of  previous  editions. 

2.  The  types  of  composition,  so  called,  that  is,  descrip- 
tion, narrative,  exposition,  and  argument,  are  treated  at  a 
length  and  with  a  thoroughness  more  nearly  corresponding 
to  their  present  importance  in  college  and  university  classes. 

3.  The  assignments  have  been  removed  from  the  text, 
where  they  are  an  encumbrance  to  the  university  student, 
and  placed  in  a  division  by  themselves.     This  arrangement 
permits  the  continuity  of  the  text  to  appear  more  plainly, 
and  at  the  same  time  gives  space  for  a  greatly  extended 
series  of   progressive   exercises   offering  a  wide  choice  to 
instructor  and  student.      It  is  believed  that  many  of  the 
assignments  that  have  been  added  are  novel  both  in  method 
and  in  subject-matter,  and  that  all  of  them  tend  to  keep 
the  student  in  the  right  attitude  towards  his  work. 

4.  The  illustrative  matter  of  former  editions,  from  long 
use  somewhat  too  familiar  to  both  teacher  and  student,  has 
been  replaced  by  fresh  materials  from  a  great  variety  of 
sources,  all  of  them  worthy  and  thought-compelling.      In 
amount  the  material  for  illustration,  study,  and  practice 
has  been  more  than  doubled. 

5.  The  authors  have  endeavored  to  avoid  the  fault  — 
perhaps  more  common  in  text-books  on  Composition  than 
in  those   on   other  subjects  —  of  unnecessarily  "affirming 
the  obvious."     Nothing  of  theory  has  been  admitted  which 
the  diligent  student  cannot  make  his  own  by  a  reasonable 
amount  of  practice.     With  these  ends  in  view,  the  authors 
have  taken  the  advice  of  experienced  instructors  who  have 
used  the  book,  both  on  questions  of  curtailment  and  of  expan- 
sion.    To  all  who  have  been  so  kind  as  to  offer  suggestions, 
the  authors  wish  to  make  here  a  general  acknowledgment 
of  obligation. 

SEPTEMBER,  1909. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.     THE  PARAGRAPH. 

PA6V 

A.  The  Art  of  Composition 1 

I.    Composition  an  Art 1 

II.     Organic  Structure  a  Characteristic  of  Art      .        .  2 

B.  Nature  and  Laws  of  the  Paragraph      ....  5 

I.    The  Paragraph  a  Sign  of  Organic  Structure  .        .  6 

II.     Two  Ways  of  Studying  Paragraphs        ...  8 

III.     General  Laws  of  the  Paragraph      ....  10 

1.  Unity 10 

2.  Selection 13 

3.  Proportion 18 

4.  Sequence 22 

5.  Variety 24 

C.  The  Isolated  Paragraph 27 

I.     Paragraph  Subject 27 

II.    The  Topic-Statement 28 

1.  Place  of  Topic-Statement 29 

2.  Topic-Statement  Implied   .....  32 

vii 


Vlli  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

III.  Means  of  Developing  the  Paragraph-Theme  .        .  34 

1.  Development  by  Particulars  and  Details  .        .  35 

2.  Development  by  Definitive  Statements      .        .  37 

3.  Development  by  Comparison  and  Illustration  .  39 

4.  Development  by  Specific  Instances  or  Examples  40 

5.  Development  by  Presenting  Reasons          .        .  42 

6.  Development  by  Applying  a  Principle       .        .  44 

7.  Development  by  Stating  Causes  and  Effects      .  45 

8.  Introductory,  Transitional,  and  Summarizing 

Sentences 47 

IV.  Effect  on  Sentence  Structure 49 

1.  Inversion 50 

2.  Parallel  Construction          .....  51 

3.  Repetition 53 

4.  Subordination 54 

5.  Punctuation        .......  56 

V.     Types  of  Paragraph  Structure         ....  62 

1.  Expository  and  Argumentative          ...  62 

The  Logical  Type 62 

Deductive 63 

Inductive 64 

The  Less  Formal  Types  ....  66 

Paragraphs  of  Definition  ....  66 

Paragraphs  of  Specific  Instances  .  .  68 

Paragraphs  of  Illustration  ...  70 
Paragraphs  of  Causes  and  Results  .  .71 

2.  Descriptive  and  Narrative  Paragraphs      .         .  72 

Paragraphs  of  Incident 74 

Descriptive  Sketches 76 

Portrait  Sketches 78 

Character  Sketches  80 


CONTENTS.  ix 


PAET  II.    WHOLE   COMPOSITIONS. 

PAGE 

A.  Special  Forms  of  Related  Paragraphs        ...      83 

I.     Introductory  and  Concluding  Paragraphs      .        .       83 

II.     Transitional  and  Directive  Paragraphs  ...      88 

III.     Amplifying  Paragraphs 89 

B.  Types  of  Whole  Composition 91 

I.     Description 92 

1.  Methods  in  Description 94 

Purpose 95 

Point  of  View 96 

Outline \    .        .99 

Selection  of  Details        .        .        .     \        .    101 
Sequence  and  Grouping          .        .        •  \    •     102 

2.  Helps  to  Description .105 

3.  Kinds  of  Description 106 

H.    Narration 112 

1.  Simple  Narrative 113 

Requisites  of  Simple  Narrative  .  .  .113 

Unity 113 

Sequence 114 

Climax Il6 

The  Elements  of  Simple  Narrative       .        .117 

2.  Complex  Narrative 119 

The  Elements  of  Complex  Narrative    .        .  121 

The  Obstacle 121 

The  Plot 122 

Characters 127 

Suspense .  129 

3.  Helps  to  Narration 130 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

HI.     Exposition 133 

1.  The  Nature  of  Exposition  ...        .        .        .133 

2.  The  Characteristics  of  Exposition      .        .        .  135 

3.  The  Process  of  Exposition — Analysis       .         .  137 

Rules  for  Logical  Definition          .        .        .  138 

Rules  for  Logical  Division     ....  141 

4.  Methods  of  Exposition 150 

5.  Kinds  of  Exposition 159 

IV.     Argumentation 165 

1.  Definition  of  Argumentation     ....  165 

2.  The  Proposition 166 

3.  Analysis 167 

4.  The  Brief 171 

5.  Inductive  Reasoning 174 

6.  Deductive  Reasoning          .....  176 

7.  A  priori  Arguments    ......  179 

8.  A  posteriori  Arguments 180 

9.  Arguments  from  Authority        ....  182 

10.  Arguments  from  Example          ....  182 

11.  Methods  of  Refutation  183 


PART   III.     ASSIGNMENTS. 

A.  The  Paragraph 186 

B.  The  Whole  Composition 233 

I.     Description 233 

II.     Narration 246 

III.  Exposition 263 

IV.  Argumentation        .......  295 

Appendix  A.     Selections  for  Analysis  and  Criticism. 

Isolated  Paragraphs 333 

Related  Paragraphs 35Q 


CONTENTS.  Xi 

PAGE 

Appendix  B.     Materials  for  Special  Exercises. 

Outlines  for  Paragraph- Writing 373 

Classroom  Themes .         .  374 

Reproductions 377 

Paraphrases  and  Abstracts 380 

Rhetorical  Analysis 382 

Stories 383 

Essays,  Speeches,  Sketch.-s         .        .   -     .        .        .386 

Books  for  Supplementary  Reading 393 

Appendix  C.     A  Classified  List  of  Essay  Subjects         .  400 

Appendix  D. 

Reporting  and  Editing 421 

Proof-reading 421 

Appendix  E. 

General  Rules  for  Capitals 430 

General  Rules  for  Punctuation 431 

Appendix  F. 

General  Directions  for  Preparing  Themes        .        .        .  433 

Marks  used  in  Correcting  Themes 435 

Appendix  G.     The  Rhetoric  of  the  Paragraph. 

Unity 440 

Clearness 445 

Force 455 

Index                                                                                            ,  465 


PART  I. 

THE  PARAGRAPH. 

A.     THE  ART  OF  COMPOSITION. 

1.  Composition  an  Art.  —  When  a  person  of  good  judgment 
has  a  new  piece  of  work  to  do,  he  considers  first  of  all  just 
what  it  is  that  he  is  trying  to  accomplish.  Having  deter- 
mined this  clearly,  he  lays  his  plans.  He  decides  what 
means  and  materials,  what  instruments  or  tools  he  must 
employ  in  order  to  bring  his  work  to  a  satisfactory  com- 
pletion. He  divides  it  into  parts  and  attempts  one  part  at  a 
~time,  subduing  each  part,  as  he  works  at  it,  to  its  proper 
place  and  function.  As  far  as  possible,  also,  he  tries  to 
foresee  the  obstacles  that  he  is  likely  to  encounter,  and  pre- 
pares himself  either  to  avoid  them  or  to  meet  and  overcome 
them  as  they  arise.  If  the  thing  which  he  is  trying  to  do 
has  ever  been  done  before,  he  takes  pains  to  inform  himself 
about  previous  attempts  and  learns  from  the  errors  as  well 
as  from  the  successes  of  his  predecessors. 

This  procedure  is  of  universal  application.  It  is  true  of 
making  a  garden,  playing  a  game,  conducting  a  business, 
building  a  boat,  writing  a  story,  or  making  an  argument.  In 
all  of  these  lines  of  effort  everything  depends  upon  making 
plans  advisedly,  choosing  suitable  means,  working  to  realize 
a  purpose.  That  is  what  makes  the  artist,  whatever  the 
material  in  which  he  works.  Emerson  must  have  had  this 
idea  in  mind  when,  in  his  essay  on  Art,  he  wrote,  "The 
conscious  utterance  of  thought  by  speech  or  action  to  any 

1 


2 


TUE  PARAGRAPH. 


end  is  Art."  He  says  conscious  utterance  because  art  implies 
knowing  what  one  is  about;  he  says  by  speech  or  action 
because  the  rule  is  the  same  for  the  fine  arts  as  for  the 
useful  arts ;  it  is  universal ;  speech  and  action  include  all 
manner  of  human  effort.  He  is  careful  to  add  the  qualifi- 
cation, to  any  end,  because  it  is  purpose  that  makes  speech 
and  action  effective;  without  purpose  they  are  futile  and 
meaningless. 

Emerson's  definition  clearly  classifies  English  Composi- 
tion among  the  arts.  In  English  Composition,  as  in  all  of 
the  other  arts,  success  depends  upon  knowing  what  one  is 
about,  upon  having  a  conscious  purpose  expressed  in  a 
theme  or  central  thought,  and  upon  employing  suitable 
material  and  methods  in  order  to  accomplish  the  purpose 
in  mind. 

2.  Organic  Structure  a  Characteristic  of  Art.  —  Every 
piece  of  work  when  satisfactorily  completed  shows  design. 
In  this  one  characteristic  all  of  the  arts,  fine  or  useful,  are 
alike.  The  design  is  apparent  in  all  of  the  details.  The 
parts  of  a  picture,  or  of  a  piece  of  music,  or  of  a  story,  all 
have  their  work  to  do  in  realizing  the  design.  If  we  examine 
closely  any  well-written  passage  of  English  prose,  we  dis- 
cover that  it  is  not  a  haphazard  collection  of  miscellaneous 
ideas  or  observations,  but  an  orderly  presentation  of  thought. 
Every  sentence  does  its  share  of  work  towards  making  the 
meaning  clear.  By  analyzing  such  a  passage  into  its  con- 
stituent parts,  we  can  see  just  what  the  work  of  each  part 
is.  After  reading  the  following  passage,  for  instance,  we 
are  able  to  say  that  the  one  thought  embodied  in  it  is 
"The  Annihilation  of  an  Army." 

1.  Then  the  march  of  the  army,  without  a  general,  went  on 
again.  2.  Soon  it  became  the  story  of  a  general  without  an  army ; 
before  very  long  there  was  neither  general  nor  army.  3.  It  is 
idle  to  lengthen  a  tale  of  mere  horrors.  4.  The  straggling  rem- 


THE  ART  OF  COMPOSITION.  3 

nant  of  an  army  entered  the  Jugdulluk  Pass  —  a  dark,  steep, 
narrow,  ascending  path  between  crags.  5.  The  miserable  toilers 
found  that  the  fanatical,  implacable  tribes  had  barricaded  the  pass. 
6.  All  was  over.  7.  The  army  of  Cabul  was  finally  extinguished 
in  that  barricaded  pass.  8.  It  was  a  trap  ;  the  British  were  taken 
in  it.  9.  A  few  mere  fugitives  escaped  from  the  scene  of  actual 
slaughter,  and  were  on  the  road  to  Jellalabad  where  Sale  and  his 
little  army  were  holding  their  own.  10.  When  they  were  within 
sixteen  miles  of  Jellalabad  the  number  was  reduced  to  six.  11.  Of 
these  six,  five  were  killed  by  straggling  marauders  on  the  way. 
12.  One  man  alone  reached  Jellalabad  to  tell  the  tale.  13.  Liter- 
ally, one  man,  Dr.  Brydon,  came  to  Jellalabad  out  of  a  moving 
host  which  had  numbered  in  all  some  sixteen  thousand  when  it 
set  out  on  its  march.  14.  The  curious  eye  will  search  through 
history  or  fiction  in  vain  for  any  picture  more  thrilling  with  the 
suggestion  of  an  awful  catastrophe  than  that  of  this  solitary  sur- 
vivor, faint  and  reeling  on  his  jaded  horse,  as  he  appeared  under 
the  walls  o^  Jellalabad,  to  bear  the  tidings  of  our  Thermopylae  of 
pain  and  shame.  —  McCarthy:  A  History  of  our  Own  Times,  Vol.  I., 
p.  199. 

The  passage  divides  into  the  following  parts,  four  in 
number :  — 

1.  The  story  of  the  march  is  a  tale  of  horrors.    (Sentences 
1-3.) 

2.  The  Jugdulluk  Pass  proved  to  be  a  trap.     (Sentences 
4-8.) 

3.  The  few  fugitives  were  reduced  to  one.     (Sentences 
9-11.) 

4.  Dr.    Brydon    alone    reached   Jellalabad.    (Sentences 
12-14.) 

In  this  passage  the  divisions  are  stages  in  the  annihila- 
tion of  the  army.  Each  stage  is  distinct,  and  each  has  its 
own  work  to  do  in  making  clear  the  one  thought  of  the 
whole  passage. 

The  following  passage  also  gives  evidence  of  regular 
organic  structure:  — 


4  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

1.  The  originality  of  form  and  treatment  which  Macau! ay  gave 
to  the  historical  essay  has  not,  perhaps,  received  due  recognition. 
Without  having  invented  it,  he  so  greatly  improved  and  expanded 
it  that  he  deserves  nearly  as  much  credit  as  if  he  had.  He  did  for 
the  historical  essay  what  Haydn  did  for  the  sonata,  and  Watt  for 
the  steam-engine :  he  found  it  rudimentary  and  unimportant,  and 
left  it  complete,  and  a  thing  of  power.  2.  Before  his  time  there 
was  the  ponderous  history,  generally  in  quarto,  and  there  was  the 
antiquarian  dissertation.  There  was  also  the  historical  review, 
containing  alternate  pages  of  extract  and  comment,  generally  dull 
and  gritty.  But  the  historical  essay,  as  he  conceived  it,  and  with 
the  prompt  inspiration  of  a  real  discoverer  immediately  put  into 
practical  shape,  was  as  good  as  unknown  before  him.  3.  To  take  a 
bright  period  or  personage  of  history,  to  frame  it  in  a  firm  outline, 
to  conceive  it  at  once  in  article  size,  and  then  to  fill  in  this  limited 
canvas  with  sparkling  anecdote,  telling  bits  of  color,  and  facts  all 
fused  together  by  a  real  genius  for  narrative,  was  the  sort  of  genre- 
painting  which  Macaulay  applied  to  history.  4.  And  to  this  day 
his  essays  remain  the  best  of  their  class,  not  only  in  England,  but  in 
Europe.  Slight,  or  even  trivial,  in  the  field  of  historical  erudition 
and  critical  inquiry,  they  are  masterpieces  if  regarded  in  the  light 
of  great  popular  cartoons  on  subjects  taken  from  modern  history. 
They  are  painted,  indeed,  with  such  freedom,  vividness,  and  power 
that  they  may  be  said  to  enjoy  a  sort  of  tacit  monopoly  of  the  peri- 
ods and  characters  to  which  they  refer,  in  the  estimation  of  the 
general  public.  —  J.  Cotter  Morison. 

Analysis  by  thought-divisions :  — 

1.  Macaulay  gave  to  the  historical  essay  originality  of  form  and 

treatment. 

(a)  He  did  not  invent  it,  but 
(6)  He  improved  it  greatly.     (Parallel  cases  —  Haydn  and 

Watt.) 
(c)  He  found  it  rudimentary  and  left  it  complete. 

2.  Forms  of  historical  writing,  before  Macaulay. 

(a)  The  ponderous  history. 

(b)  The  dissertation. 

(c)  The  review. 


LAWS   OF  THE  PARAGRAPH.  5 

3.  In  what  consisted  Macaulay's  originality  of  treatment. 

(a)  Selection  of  effective  points  and  periods  and  telling  per- 
sonages. 

(6)  Framing  the  selected  period  or  personage  in  firm  out- 
line—  Unity. 

(c)  A  sense  of  due  proportion.     Genius  for  narrative. 

4.  His  essays  the  best  of  their  class. 

(a)  Others  surpass  them  in  erudition  and  critical  research, 

but 
(&)    They  are  masterpieces  if  judged  as  specimens  of  broad, 

popular  treatment, 
(c)   They  have  a  monopoly  of  the  periods  and  characters 

treated  by  them. 

B.  NATURE  AND  LAWS  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH^ 

3.  The  Paragraph  a  Sign  of  Organic  Structure.  —  A  pas- 
sage like  the  foregoing  is  called  u  parii^niph.  From  our 
consideration  of  its  form  and  function  thus  far,  we  may 
deduce  the  following  definition  :  — 

A  paragraph  is  a  unit  of  discourse  developing  a  single  idea. 
It  consists  of  a  group  or  series  of  sentences  closely  related  to 
one  another  and  to  the  thought  expressed  by  the  whole  group  or 
series.  Devoted,  like  the  sentence,  to  the  development  of  one 
topic,  a  good  paragraph  is  also,  like  a  good  essay,  a  complete 
treatment  in  itself. 

The  following  paragraphs  illustrate  this  close  relation  of 
sentences :  — 

I  willingly  concede  all  that  you  say  against  fashionable  society 
as  a  whole.  It  is,  as  you  say,  frivolous,  bent  on  amusement, 
incapable  of  attention  sufficiently  prolonged  to  grasp  any  serious 
subject,  and  liable  both  to  confusion  and  inaccuracy  in  the  ideas 
which  it  hastily  forms  or  easily  receives.  You  do  right,  assuredly, 
not  to  let  it  waste  your  most  valuable  hours,  but  I  believe  also  that 
you  do  wrong  in  keeping  out  of  it  altogether. 

The  society  which  seems  so  frivolous  in  masses  contains  indi- 


6  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

vidual  members  who,  if  you  knew  them  better,  would  be  able  and 
willing  to  render  you  the  most  efficient  intellectual  help,  and  you 
miss  this  help  by  restricting  yourself  exclusively  to  books.  Nothing 
can  replace  the  conversation  of  living  men  and  women;  not  even 
the  richest  literature  can  replace  it.  —  Hamerton  :  The  Intellectual 
Life,  Part  IX.,  Letter  V. 

The  topic  treated  by  the  first  of  these  paragraphs  is 
"Society  is  frivolous  as  a  whole";  that  treated  by  the 
second  is  "But  society  contains  individuals  whose  conver- 
sation is  highly  profitable."  These  paragraphs  are  closely 
related,  but  each  represents  a  distinct  phase  of  the  thought. 
In  this  way,  the  successive  paragraphs  of  an  essay  treat  in 
turn  the  topics  into  which  the  essay  naturally  divides  itself. 
If  the  subject  requires  only  a  brief  treatment  and  includes 
but  two  or  three  topics,  a  single  paragraph  will  suffice  for 
each.  Of  a  more  extensive  production,  involving  topics  and 
subtopics,  each  subtopic  may  require  a  separate  paragraph 
for  its  adequate  treatment.  The  paragraphs  thus  indicate 
the  organic  structure  of  the  whole  composition,  while  each 
paragraph  singly  has  its  own  organic  structure  also.  Thus 
in  the  following  essay  by  Sir  Walter  Besant  on  the  London 
Mob,  the  first  paragraph  describes  the  close  relation  of  the 
master  and  workman  prior  to  the  eighteenth  century ;  the 
second  tells  how  with  the  separation  of  companies  and 
craftsmen  the  London  mob  came  into  existence;  the  third 
presents  the  condition  and  temper  of  the  working  men  at  the 
close  of  the  last  century ;  the  fourth  explains  why  the  mob 
did  not  gain  the  upper  hand. 

1.  The  eighteenth  century  was  remarkable,  among  other  things, 
for  the  complete  separation  of  master  and  workman.  When  the 
companies  received  their  charters  and  the  crafts  were  organized, 
the  burden  of  the  work  might  be  heavy,  but  the  masters  and  the 
workmen  were  united  ;  they  belonged  to  the  same  company,  which 
looked  after  the  interests  of  the  craft,  and  cared  for  every  man  in 
it.  The  company  educated  the  boy,  apprenticed  him,  received  him 


LAWS   OF  THE  PARAGRAPH.  7 

into  its  body  when  he  had  served  his  time,  made  him  obey  the 
rules,  made  him  go  to  church,  perhaps  started  him  in  business  on 
his  own  account,  cared  for  him  if  he  fell  sick  or  was  disabled,  cared 
for  his  children  if  he  died,  pensioned  him  when  he  was  old,  buried 
him  and  had  masses  said  for  his  soul.  All  through  life  he  was  the 
servant  of  the  company ;  he  lived  and  worked  under  a  discipline 
which  was  sometimes  severe  but  generally  wholesome. 

2.  But  London  pressed  beyond  the  walls,  and  with  the  expan- 
sion of  London,  in  Whitechapel,  Wapping,  Ratcliffe,  or  Clerken- 
well,  the  companies  lost  their  hold  upon   the  craftsmen;    they 
ceased  to  enroll  the  craftsmen  in  their  societies;  between  the  mer- 
chant and  the  craftsmen  there  was  no  longer  the  bond  of  common 
interests  and  common  obedience.     In  a  word,  the  London  mob 
grew  up,  apart  and  separate,  unheeded,  until  it  became  a  frightful 
danger,  terrible  in  its  ignorance,  its  drunkenness,  its  brutality,  and 
its  freedom  from  all  restraint  of  morality  and  religion.     How  they 
lived,  how  they  wallowed  —  this  mass  of  humanity  uncared  for  — 
must  be  learned  bit  by  bit,  for  they  have  no  historian.     No  one 
cared  for  them;  not  the  Church,  for  they  were  outside  the  city 
parishes  —  besides,  the  eighteenth  century  clergyman  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  was  a  preacher,  not  a  visitor  of  the  poor ;  the  church 
stood  open  for  its  daily  services  if  any  chose  to  appear ;  if  they  did 
not  appear,  so  much  the  worse  for  them.     Of  schools  there  were 
next  to  none;    no  gentlefolk  lived  among  this  class  of  people; 
neither  restraining  nor  elevating  influences  existed  at  all  for  them. 

3.  The  lowest  depth  ever  touched  by  the  lowest  class  of  a  modern 
city  seems  to  have  been  reached  by  the  London  mob  about  the  end 
of  the  last  century.    Looking  back  upon  that  time,  remembering, 
among  other  things,  the  constant  demand  for  sailors  and  soldiers, 
which  devoured  the  best  youth  of  the  country,  one  asks  in  admira- 
tion how  government  was  carried  on  at  all.     For  the  whole  of  the 
great  class  who  did  the  work  —  in  the  towns  at  least  —  were  filled 
with  hatred  of  the  governing  class.     As  for  any  share  or  voice  in 
the  government,  they  had  none.     There  was  danger  if  the  people 
got  any  education,  for   they  would  then   become   agitators  and 
leaders ;  there  was  danger  if  they  remained  ignorant,  because  an 
ignorant  people  is  liable  to  sudden  storms.      One   touch  of  elo- 
quence —  one  little  unimportant  event  —  and  lo  1  a  Jacquerie.    The 


8  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

mutiny  of  Spithead  and  the  Nore  showed  the  dangers  of  combined 
action ;  the  Gordon  riots  showed  the  danger  of  an  accidental 
flame. 

4.  His  own  position,  however  —  and  here  was  the  safety — made 
it  extremely  difficult  for  the  working  man  to  combine ;  he  had  to 
work  hard  every  day  and  all  day  long,  with  no  respite,  or  holiday, 
except  on  Sunday:  his  hours  were  long;  his  wages  —  which  did 
not  pretend  to  have  any  relation  to  his  productive  value  —  were 
miserable.  He  was,  for  all  practical  purposes,  bound  to  the  place 
where  he  was  born  and  where  he  served  his  apprenticeship.  As  a 
rule  he  could  not  read,  or,  if  he  could,  there  were  no  journals,  or 
books,  for  him ;  he  drank  as  much  as  he  could  afford  to  drink ;  his 
wits  were  besotted  ;  he  was  inarticulate.  The  Government  was  an 
unseen  power  which  stood  beside  his  master;  it  flogged,  trans- 
ported, and  hanged  people ;  these  accidents  might  happen  to  any- 
body. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  London  mob  —  which  was 
born  late  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  grew  greater,  more 
dangerous,  more  terrible  in  its  unknown  powers  every  year — was 
kept  down  by  two  weapons  only  —  these  were  its  own  ignorance, 
and  the  strong  hand  of  the  executioner.  —  Besant :  The  Science  of 
Sympathy. 

4.  Two  Ways  of  Studying  Paragraphs.  —  A  paragraph 
may  be  studied  as  a  structural  part  of  an  essay ;  or  it  may 
be  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  essay  and  be  studied  by  it- 
self. In  a  later  chapter  we  shall  study  paragraphs  in  the 
first  way.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  study  each  paragraph 
as  if  it  were  a  separate  and  complete  composition  in  minia- 
ture, and  shall  use  the  term  isolated  paragraph  to  indicate 
that  fact.  A  large  class  of  subjects  admit  of  adequate 
treatment  in  single  paragraphs;  for  example,  incidents, 
brief  descriptions,  short  comments  on  current  events,  and 
discussions  of  single  phases  of  political  and  social  questions. 
The  writing  of  single  paragraphs  has  become  a  recognized 
feature  in  editorial  work.  The  following  paragraph  is  taken 
from  a  longer  composition,  yet  it  is  as  adequate  a  treatment 
of  its  own  topic  as  if  it  were  an  independent  composition. 


LAWS   OF  THE  PARAGRAPH.  9 

In  England  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Tory  party  has  been 
its  support  of  measures  which  tend  to  strengthen  the  crown  and 
the  aristocracy,  and  to  enlarge  and  tighten  the  control  exercised 
by  the  community  over  its  individual  members.  The  chief  charac- 
teristic of  the  Liberal  party  has  been  its  support  of  measures  which 
tend  to  weaken  the  crown  and  the  aristocracy,  and  to  diminish 
and  relax  the  control  exercised  by  the  community  over  its  indi- 
vidual members.  In  all  times  and  countries  there  has  been  such 
a  division  between  parties,  and  in  the  nature  of  things  it  is  the 
only  sound  and  abiding  principle  of  division.  Ephemeral  parties 
rise  and  fall  over  special  questions  of  temporary  importance,  but 
this  grand  division  endureth  forever.  Wherever  there  are  com- 
munities of  men,  a  certain  portion  of  the  community  is  marked 
off,  in  one  way  or  another,  to  exercise  authority  over  the  whole 
and  perform  the  various  functions  of  government.  The  question 
always  is  how  much  authority  shall  this  governing  portion  of  the 
community  be  allowed  to  exercise,  to  how  great  an  extent  shall  it 
be  permitted  to  interfere  with  private  affairs,  to  take  people's 
money  in  the  shape  of  taxes,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  and  in 
other  ways  to  curb  or  restrict  the  freedom  of  individuals.  All 
people  agree  that  government  must  have  some  such  powers,  or  else 
human  society  would  be  resolved  into  a  chaos  in  which  every  man's 
hand  would  be  raised  against  every  other  man.  The  political 
question  is  as  to  how  much  power  government  shall  be  permitted 
to  exercise.  Where  shall  the  line  be  drawn  beyond  which  the 
governing  body  shall  not  be  allowed  to  go?  This  has  been  the 
fundamental  question  among  all  peoples  in  all  lands,  and  it  is 
the  various  answers  to  this  question  that  have  ma/le  all  the  differ- 
ences in  the  success  or  the  failure  of  different  phases  of  civilization, 
—  all  the  differences  between  the  American  citizen  and  the  Asiatic 
coolie.  We  might  thus  take  any  nation  that  has  ever  existed  for 
comparison  with  the  United  States,  but  we  choose  to  take  England, 
because  there  the  will  of  the  people  has  in  all  ages  been  able  to 
assert  itself.  In  countries  where  the  voice  of  the  people  has  been 
for  a  long  time  silenced,  as  in  France  under  the  old  regime  and  in 
Russia,  we  naturally  find  parties  coming  up,  like  the  Jacobins  and 
the  Anarchists,  who  would  fain  destroy  all  government  and  send 
us  back  to  savagery ;  for  in  politics  as  well  as  in  physics  it  may  be 
said  that  action  and  reaction  are  equal  and  in  opposite  directions. 


____ 
10  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

But  in  England,  just  because  the  people  have  always  been  able  to 
find  their  voice  and  use  it,  things  have  proceeded  normally,  in  a 
quiet  and  slow  development,  like  the  unfolding  of  a  flower;  and 
so  the  differences  between  parties  have  never  assumed  a  radically 
explosive  form,  but  have  taken  the  shape  with  which  we  are  famil- 
iar as  the  differences  between  Liberals  and  Tories.  —  Fiske :  Essays 
Historical  and  Literary,  Vol.  I.,  p.  171. 


GENERAL  LAWS  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

5.  As    a    unit    of    discourse,    every    paragraph,   whether 
related  or  isolated,  is  subject  to  the  general   laws  of  unity, 
selection,  proportion,  sequence,  and  variety,  which  govern  all 
good  composition. 

6.  Unity. — The  most  important  of  these  is  the  law  of 
unity,  which  requires  that  the  sentences  composing  the  para- 
graph be  intimately  connected  with  one  another  in  thought  and 
purpose.     The  fundamental  idea  of  the  paragraph  is  oneness  of 
aim  and  end  in  all  of  its  parts.     Unity  is  violated,  therefore, 
when  any  sentence  is  admitted  as  a  part,  which  does  not 
clearly  contribute  its  share  of  meaning  towards  the  object 
for  which  the  paragraph  is  written.     Unity  forbids  digres- 
sions and  irrelevant  matter.     The  most  common  violation 
of  unity  is  including  matter  in  one  paragraph  which  should 
either  be  taken  out  and  made  a  separate  paragraph  by  itself 
or  be  dropped  altogether. 

The  following   paragraph   treating  of  the   unity  of  the /&£/; 
Gothic  cathedral  is  a  fine  illustration  of  this  fundamental 
law:  — 

Wonderful  as  the  art  of  the  cathedral  is,  it  was  no  mere  wanton 
exercise  of  the  imagination.  Every  part  of  the  most  complicated 
cathedral  was  carefully  adjusted  to  every  other,  was  as  nicely  cal- 
culated and  as  boldly  executed  as  any  notable  piece  of  modern 
engineering.  Every  portion  of  a  well-ordered  Gothic  structure 
performed  a  useful  and  necessary  function.  The  high  vaults  of 


UNITY.  11 

the  nave  were  the  fundamental  element.  These  must  be  high 
enough  to  permit  the  introduction  of  windows  beneath  them  that 
would  admit  light  over  the  roofs  of  the  aisles.  This  was  the  great 
architectural  problem  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Gothic  architecture 
was  developed  in  striving  to  solve  it.  How  this  was  done  and 
where  and  why,  we  need  not  stop  to  inquire.  But  it  is  useful  to 
keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  buttresses  and  flying  buttresses, 
which,  in  the  hands  of  the  French  builders,  became  so  marked  an 
ornamental  feature,  performed  the  useful  and  necessary  work  of 
carrying  the  vault  thrusts,  which  were  further  held  in  check  by  the 
pinnacles  placed  on  the  buttresses.  The  walls  in  a  thoroughly 
developed  Gothic  church  —  thoroughly  developed,  that  is,  in  the 
sense  of  illustrating  Gothic  principles  in  their  fullest  phase  of 
development  —  are  mere  curtains  between  the  buttresses.  It  thus 
became  possible  to  introduce  windows  of  great  size,  wholly  filling 
the  space  between  the  buttresses,  and  reaching  quite  to  the  vault- 
ing ribs  in  the  aisles  and  the  clearstory  of  the  nave.  The  funda- 
mental Gothic  principle  of  building  was  the  concentration  of 
weights  and  thrusts  upon  certain  strong  structural  points,  which, 
in  the  church,  were  the  buttresses.  This  accomplished,  it  was  the 
builders'  task  to  give  this  structural  frame  an  artistic  form,  which 
should  make  it  beautiful  without  hiding  its  structural  nature. 

—  Barr  Ferree. 

The  following  paragraph  from  Dryden,  on  Translation, 
will,  on  the  other  hand,  serve  to  illustrate  how  unity  is 
frequently  violated:  — 

(1)  Translation  is  a  kind  of  drawing  after  the  life;  where 
every  one  will  acknowledge  there  is  a  double  sort  of  likeness,  a 
good  one  and  a  bad.  It  is  one  thing  to  draw  the  outlines  true, 
the  features  like,  the  proportions  exact,  the  coloring  itself  per- 
haps tolerable;  and  another  thing  to  make  all  these  graceful, 
by  the  posture,  the  shadowings,  and  chiefly  by  the  spirit  which 
animates  the  whole.  (2)  I  cannot,  without  some  indignation, 
look  on  an  ill  copy  of  an  excellent  original;  much  less  can 
I  behold  with  patience  Virgil,  Homer,  and  some  others,  whose 
beauties  I  have  been  endeavouring  all  my  life  to  imitate,  so 
abused,  as  I  may  say,  to  their  faces  by  a  botching  interpreter, 


12  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

What  English  readers,  unacquainted  with  Greek  or  Latin,  will 
believe  me  or  any  other  man,  when  we  commend  these  authors, 
and  confess  we  derive  all  that  is  pardonable  in  us  from  their 
fountains,  if  they  take  those  to  be  the  same  poets  whom  our 
Oglevies  have  translated?  But  I  dare  assure  them  that  a  good 
poet  is  no  more  like  himself  in  a  dull  translation,  than  his  carcase 
would  be  to  his  living  body.  (3)  There  are  many  who  under- 
stand Greek  and  Latin  and  yet  are  ignorant  of  their  mother 
tongue.  The  proprieties  and  delicacies  of  the  English  are  known 
to  few;  it  is  impossible  even  for  a  good  wit  to  understand  and 
practise  them  without  the  help  of  a  liberal  education,  long  reading 
and  digesting  of  those  few  good  authors  we  have  amongst  us;  the 
knowledge  of  men  and  manners,  the  freedom  of  habitudes  and 
conversation  with  the  best  company  of  both  sexes ;  and,  in  short, 
without  wearing  off  the  rust  which  he  contracted  while  he  was 
laying  in  a  stock  of  learning.  Thus  difficult  it  is  to  understand 
the  purity  of  English,  and  critically  to  discern,  not  only  good 
writers  from  bad,  and  a  proper  style  from  a  corrupt,  but  also  to 
distinguish  that  which  is  pure  in  a  good  author  from  that  which 
is  vicious  and  corrupt  in  him.  And  for  want  of  all  these  requisites, 
or  the  greatest  part  of  them,  most  of  our  ingenious  young  men  take 
up  some  cried-up  English  poet  for  their  model ;  adore  him,  and 
imitate  him,  as  they  think,  without  knowing  wherein  he  is  defec- 
tive, where  he  is  boyish  and  trifling,  wherein  either  his  thoughts 
are  improper  to  his  subject,  or  his  expressions  unworthy  of  his 
thoughts,  or  the  turn  of  both  is  unharmonious. 

The  section  of  this  paragraph  marked  (2)  is  an  expression 
of  Dry  den's  personal  feelings  towards  bad  translations,  and 
shows  no  connection  with  what  precedes  in  the  section 
marked  (1),  which  states  the  nature  and  difficulties  of 
translation.  Section  (2)  should  either  be  omitted  entirely 
or  be  taken  out  and  made  into  a  separate  paragraph,  prefaced, 
as  Bain  suggests  (Rhetoric,  Part  I.  p.  113),  by  some  such 
statement  as  this :  "  A  good  original  must  not  be  judged  by 
an  ill  copy."  Section  (3)  would,  in  the  latter  case,  also  be- 
come a  separate  paragraph,  prefaced  by  some  such  state- 
ment as  this:  "That  good  translations  are  few  is  not  to  be 


SELECTION.  13 

wondered  at.  For  a  good  translation  two  things  are  re- 
quired :  a  knowledge  of  English,  as  well  as  a  knowledge 
of  the  original. "  The  order  of  the  paragraphs  would  then 
be  (1),  (3),  (2).  If  section  (2)  were  omitted  entirely,  sec- 
tion (3)  might  be  unified  with  section  (1)  by  prefacing  (3) 
with  the  single  sentence :  "  For  a  good  translation  two 
things  are  required :  a  knowledge  of  English,  as  well  as  a 
knowledge  of  the  original."  The  changes  suggested  here 
in  the  order  of  sentences  illustrate  also  the  law  of  sequence 
(the  fourth  law  of  the  paragraph). 

7.  Selection.  —  Of  the  multitude  of  things  that  may  be 
said  on  a  given  subject,  what  shall  be  chosen  for  mention 
in  the  paragraph?  The  law  of  selection  gives  a  twofold 
answer.  In  the  first  place,  the  points  selected  should  be 
those  that  will  best  subserve  the  purpose  in  writing  end  will 
give  force  and  distinction  to  its  main  idea.  In  the  second  place, 
the  points  selected  should  be  those  that  will  be  best  adapted  to 
the  particular  audience  addressed.  On  the  first  part  of  the 
rule,  it  should  be  said  that  a  few  points  will  usually  serve 
better  than  many.  What  to  omit  is  always  an  important 
question,  especially  in  narrative  and  descriptive  paragraphs. 
The  effort  to  make  a  narrative  or  a  description  complete 
even  to  the  smallest  details  may  render  the  account  obscure. 
It  is  not  the  number  of  items  cited,  but  their  significance 
that  counts.  In  the  following,  the  illustration  from  por- 
trait painting  is  especially  apt,  embodying  in  itself  the 
point  of  the  whole  matter  at  issue. 

How,  indeed,  is  it  possible  for  any  writer  to  narrate  any  fact 
without  having  previously  determined  its  value  and  importance 
in  his  own  mind?  and  how  can  he  determine  these,  unless  he 
previously  possess  some  theory  of  the  moral  laws  by  which  human 
action  is  regulated  ?  A  narration,  you  say,  is  a  picture  in  words  ; 
neither  more  nor  less.  Be  it  so  ;  but  even  the  painter  who  paints 
your  portrait  must  place  you  in  some  attitude  or  costume,  and 
will  endeavor  to  select  the  attitude  or  costume  most  character- 


14  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

istic  of  the  predominant  disposition  of  your  mind.  And  the  facts 
he  is  about  to  relate  ought  to  present  themselves  in  a  definite 
manner  before  the  inind  of  the  writer,  whose  aim  it  should  be  to 
place  himself  in  a  definite  point  of  view,  from  which  he  feels  he 
can  most  completely  grasp  their  true  aspect.  The  historian  must 
necessarily  have  some  theory  of  arrangement,  perspective,  and 
expression,  from  which,  logically,  he  will  be  guided  to  a  theory  of 
causes.  The  cause  of  every  fact  is  an  essential  part  of  that  fact, 
and  determines  its  ruling  characteristics.  What  is  a  fact,  but  the 
effort  of  a  cause  seeking  to  create  or  influence  the  future  ? —  Joseph 
Mazzini:  Essays,  Carlyle's  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

In  paragraphs  of  an  expository  or  argumentative  char- 
acter, violations  of  the  law  of  selection  most  often  appear 
in  the  use  of  remote  and  inapplicable  figures  of  speech  and 
far-fetched  and  misleading  contrasts.  The  following  con- 
tains two  such  contrasts,  here  printed  in  italics :  — 

Ordinary  criminal  justice  knows  nothing  of  set-off.  The 
greatest  desert  cannot  be  pleaded  in  answer  to  a  charge  of  the 
slightest  transgression.  If  a  man  has  sold  beer  on  Sunday  morning, 
it  is  no  defence  that  he  has  saved  the  life  of  a  fellow-creature  at 
the  risk  of  his  own.  If  he  has  harnessed  a  Newfoundland  dog  to 
his  little  child's  carriage,  it  is  no  defence  that  he  was  wounded  at 
Waterloo.  —  Macaulay  :  Lord  Clive. 

Some  more  obvious  "  transgression  "  than  "  harnessing  a 
Newfoundland  dog  to  his  little  child's  carriage"  (it  will 
occur  to  most  readers)  ought  to  have  been  cited,  in  order 
to  justify  the  extraordinary  method  of  defence  suggested 
—  that  of  exposing  the  wounds  the  prisoner  received  at 
Waterloo.  The  very  widen  ess  from  each  other  of  the  things 
selected  for  contrast  defeats  the  writer's  purpose. 

Another  example  from  the  same  author  has  been  noted 
by  Morley :  — 

Those  strokes  of  minute  circumstantiality  which  he  [Macaulay] 
loved  so  dearly  show  that  even  in  moments  when  his  imagination 
might  seem  to  be  moving  both  spontaneously  and  ardently,  it  was 
really  only  a  literary  instrument,  a  fashioning  tool  and  not  a 


SELECTION.  15 

melting  flame.  Let  us  take  a  single  example.  He  is  describing 
the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings.  "  Every  step  in  the  proceedings," 
he  says,  "carried  the  mind  either  backward  through  many 
troubled  centuries  to  the  days  when  the  foundations  of  our  con- 
stitution were  laid ;  or  far  away  over  boundless  seas  and  deserts, 
to  dusky  nations  living  under  strange  stars,  worshiping  strange 
gods,  and  writing  strange  characters  from  right  to  left."  The  odd 
triviality  of  the  last  detail,  its  unworthiness  of  the  sentiment  of 
the  passage,  leaves  the  reader  checked;  what  sets  out  as  a  fine 
stroke  of  imagination  dwindles  down  to  a  sort  of  literary  conceit. 
And  this  puerile  twist,  by  the  way,  is  all  the  poorer,  when  it  is 
considered  that  the  native  writing  is  really  from  left  to  right,  and 
only  takes  the  other  direction  in  a  foreign,  that  is  to  say,  a  Persian 
alphabet.  —  J.  Morley :  Critical  Miscellanies,  Macaulay. 

This  is  a  charge,  however,  that  cannot  often  be  brought 
against  Macaulay.  His  paragraphs  are,  in  general,  models 
of  structure,  unity,  and  force. 

De  Quincey,  especially  when  he  tries  to  be  humorous, 
often  suffers  a  temporary  paralysis  of  the  selective  faculty. 
In  the  following  example,  if  the  subject  of  the  paragraph  is 
"  The  Age  of  the  Earth  according  to  Kant,"  the  portions  in 
brackets  are  not  happily  chosen. 

Meantime,  what  Kant  understood  by  being  old  is  something 
that  still  remains  to  be  explained.  If  one  stumbled  in  the  steppes 
of  Tartary  on  the  grave  of  a  megalonyx,  and,  after  long  study,  had 
deciphered  from  some  pre-Adamite  hiero-pothooks  the  following 
epitaph  :  "  Hie  jacet  a  megalonyx,  or  Hie  jacet  a  mammoth,  (as  the 
case  might  be,)  who  departed  this  life,  to  the  grief  of  his  numer- 
ous acquaintance,  in  the  seventeen  thousandth  year  of  his  age," 
—  [of  course  one  would  be  sorry  for  him  ;  because  it  must  be  dis- 
agreeable at  any  age  to  be  torn  away  from  life  and  from  all  one's 
little  megalonychal  comforts :  that's  not  pleasant,  you  know,  even 
if  one  is  seventeen  thousand  years  old.  But]  it  would  make  all 
the  difference  possible  in  your  grief  whether  the  record  indicated  a 
premature  death,  —  [that  he  had  been  cut  off,  in  fact,  whilst  just 
stepping  into  life,  —  or  had  kicked  the  bucket  when  full  of  honors, 
and  been  followed  to  the  grave  by  a  train  of  weeping  grandchil- 


\ 


16  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

dren.  He  had  died  "  in  his  teens  " ;  that's  past  denying.  But  still] 
we  must  know  to  what  stage  of  life  in  a  man  had  corresponded 
seventeen  thousand  years  in  a  mammoth.  Now,  exactly  this  was 
what  Kant  desired  to  know  about  our  planet.  Let  her  have  lived 
any  number  of  years  that  you  suggest,  (shall  we  say,  if  you  please, 
that  she  is  in  her  billionth  year?)  still  that  tells  us  nothing  about 
the  period  of  life,  the  stage,  which  she  may  be  supposed  to  have 
reached.  Is  she  a  child,  in  fact?  or  is  she  an  adult?  [And  if  an 
adult,  and  that  you  gave  a  ball  to  the  solar  system,  is  she  that  kind 
of  person  that  you  would  introduce  to  a  waltzing  partner,  some 
fiery  young  gentleman  like  Mars?  or  would  you  rather  suggest  to 
her  the  sort  of  partnership  which  takes  place  at  a  whist  table?] 
On  this,  as  on  so  many  other  questions,  Kant  was  perfectly  sensi- 
ble that  people  of  the  finest  understandings  may,  and  do,  take  the 
most  opposite  views.  —  De  Quincey :  System  of  the  Heacens. 

In  the  following  description,  notice  that  the  points  se- 
lected for  mention  are  few  in  number,  and  are  all  chosen 
with  the  single  purpose  of  bringing  out  the  idea  of  great 
wealth :  — 

Of  the  provinces  which  had  been  subject  to  the  house  of  Tam- 
erlane, the  wealthiest  was  Bengal.  '  No  part  of  India  possessed 
such  natural  advantages  both  for  agriculture  and  for  commerce. 
The  Ganges,  rushing  through  a  hundred  channels  to  the  sea,  has 
formed  a  vast  plain  of  rich  mold  which,  even  under  the  tropical 
sky,  rivals  the  verdure  of  an  English  April.  The  ricefields  yield 
an  increase  such  as  is  elsewhere  unknown.  Spices,  sugar,  vegeta- 
ble oils,  are  produced  with  marvelous  exuberance.  The  rivers 
afford  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fish.  The  desolate  islands  along 
the  sea-coast,  overgrown  by  noxious  vegetation,  and  swarming 
with  deer  and  tigers,  supply  the  cultivated  districts  with  abundance 
of  salt.  The  great  stream  which  fertilizes  the  soil  is,  at  the  same 
time,  the  chief  highway  of  Eastern  commerce.  On  its  banks,  and 
on  those  of  its  tributary  waters,  are  the  wealthiest  marts,  the  most 
splendid  capitals,  and  the  most  sacred  shrines  of  India.  The 
tyranny  of  man  had  for  ages  struggled  in  vain  against  the  over- 
flowing bounty  of  nature.  In  spite  of  the  Mussulman  despot  and 
of  the  Mahratta  freebooter,  Bengal  was  known  through  the  East 


SELECTION.  17 

as  the  Garden  of  Eden,  as  the  rich  kingdom.  Its  population  mul- 
tiplied exceedingly.  Distant  provinces  were  nourished  from  the 
overflowing  of  its  granaries ;  and  the  noble  ladies  of  London  and 
Paris  were  clothed  in  the  delicate  produce  of  its  looms. 

—  Macaulay :  Lord  Clive. 

The  second  part  of  the  rule  enjoins  the  selection  of  those 
points  that  the  particular  audience  addressed  will  under- 
stand and  appreciate.  The  writer  needs  to  consider  what 
his  reader  knows  about  the  subject,  how  much  explanation 
is  necessary,  what  may  be  curtailed  or  omitted.  The 
scientist  will  write  differently  on  the  same  topic  for  an 
association  of  scientists  and  for  a  popular  magazine.  One 
who  is  addressing  an  audience  of  students,  or  of  working  men, 
or  of  business  men,  or  of  scholars,  will  find  himself  choos- 
ing the  things  to  say  that  are  most  likely  to  be  of  interest 
to  the  particular  audience  before  him.  In  the  following  it 
is  evident  that  the  names  chosen  for  mention  are  precisely 
those  that  are  held  in  universal  esteem,  though  other  names 
might  be  substituted  that  would  not  be  so  willingly  granted 
by  all  readers  the  high  title  of  "Christian  hero." 

One  of  the  most  encouraging  features  of  the  age  in  which  we 
live  is  the  rapidity  with  which  the  bitter  feelings  attendant  upon 
a  terrible  civil  war  have  faded  away  and  given  place  to  mutual 
friendliness  and  esteem  between  gallant  men  who,  less  than  thirty 
years  ago,  withstood  one  another  in  deadly  strife.  Among  our 
public  men  who  hunger  for  the  highest  offices,  a  few  Rip  Van 
Winkles  are  still  to  be  found  who,  without  sense  enough  to  realize 
the  folly  and  wickedness  of  their  behavior,  try  now  and  then  to 
fan  into  fresh  life  the  dying  embers  of  sectional  prejudice  and  dis- 
trust ;  but  their  speech  has  lost  its  charm,  and  those  that  bow  the 
ear  to  it  are  few.  The  time  is  at  hand  when  we  may  study  the 
great  Civil  War  of  the  nineteenth  century  as  dispassionately  as 
we  study  that  of  the  seventeenth ;  and  the  warmest  admirer  of 
Cromwell  and  Lincoln  may  rejoice  in  belonging  to  a  race  of  men 
that  had  produced  such  noble  Christian  heroes  as  Lucius,  Vis- 
count Falkland,  and  General  Robert  Lee.  Such  a  time  seems 


18  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

certainly  not  far  off  when  we  see  how  pleasantly  the  generals  of 
opposing  armies  can  now  sit  down  and  tell  their  reminiscences,  and 
discuss  each  other's  opinions  and  conduct  in  the  pages  of  a  popular 
magazine.  —  Fiske :  Essays  Historical  and  Literary,  Vol.  I.,  p.  3. 

8.  Proportion.  —  The  law  of  proportion  requires,  first,  that 
enough  be  said  to  exhibit  fully  the  purpose  and  idea  of  the  para- 
graph. Paragraphs  will,  therefore,  differ  in  length  according 
to  the  importance  and  scope  of  the  ideas  they  present.  No 
arbitrary  rules  can  be  given  as  to  the  proper  length  of  para- 
graphs. Observing  the  custom  of  some  of  our  best  writers, 
we  may  safely  say  that  it  is  not  well  to  extend  a  single 
paragraph  beyond  three  hundred  words.  The  advantage 
of  at  least  one  paragraph-indention  on  almost  every  page 
of  a  printed  book  is  felt  by  every  reader.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  Professor  Earle  says  (English  Prose,  p.  212), 
"  The  term  paragraph  can  hardly  be  applied  to  anything 
short  of  three  sentences,"  though  skilful  writers  sometimes 
make  a  paragraph  of  two  sentences,  or  even  of  one. 

This  law  requires,  secondly,  that  the  details  which  make  up 
the  paragraph  be  treated  and  amplified  in  proportion  to  their 
respective  importance  to  the  main  idea  and  purpose  of  the  para- 
graph. Subordinate  ideas  and  subsidiary  details  should  be  kept 
subordinate  and  subsidiary.1 

1  A  corollary  of  this  requirement  of  the  law  of  proportion  has  been 
elevated  by  Professor  Barrett  Wendell  to  the  dignity  of  a  fundamental 
principle :  — 

"  So  we  come  to  the  principle  which  governs  the  external  form  of  para- 
graphs,—the  principle  of  Mass:  that  the  chief  parts  of  each  composition 
should  be  so  placed  as  readily  to  catch  the  eye." 

—  English  Composition,  p.  126. 

"  How  conspicuous  the  chief  places  in  any  paragraph  are,  a  glance  at 
any  printed  page  will  show.  Trained  or  untrained,  the  human  eye  cannot 
help  dwelling  instinctively  a  little  longer  on  the  beginnings  and  ends  of 
paragraphs  than  on  any  other  points  in  the  discourse.  ...  It  is  a  simple 
question  of  visible,  external  outline ;  and  it  means,  in  other  words,  that 
the  beginning  and  the  end  of  a  paragraph  are  beyond  doubt  the  fittest 
places  for  its  chief  ideas,  and  so  for  its  chief  words."  —  76. ,  pp.  127-128, 


Ca**^- 

PROPORTION.  19 

Thirdly,  overamplification  and  too  extensive  illustration  of 
a  simple  statement  admitted  by  every  one  are  violations  of  the 
law  of  proportion.  The  term  economy  is  very  aptly  used 
by  Spencer  in  his  Philosophy  of /Style  to  express  this  require- 
ment of  the  law  of  proportion.  Concisely  stated,  it  implies 
the  employment  of  the  simplest  means  for  securing  the  full- 
est effects.  At  any  moment,  Spencer  argues,  the  reader  or 
hearer  has  only  a  certain  amount  of  mental  energy  to  ex- 
pend upon  what  he  is  reading  or  hearing.  Part  of  this 
energy  must  be  expended  upon  the  mere  symbols  of  writing 
or  speech ;  the  remainder  may  be  devoted  to  the  ideas  or 
emotions  embodied  in  those  symbols.  It  follows  that  the 
less  energy  the  reader  or  listener  needs  to  expend  upon  the 
form,  the  more  he  may  devote  to  the  thought  or  the  emotion. 
Difficult  words,  involved  constructions,  unnecessary  ampli- 
fication or  illustration,  as  well  as  unidiomatic  order,  are  all 
uneconomical  because  they  attract  the  reader's  attention 
from  the  thought  to  the  manner  of  expression. 

In  illustration  of  the  first  requirement  of  this  rule,  con- 
trast the  two  paragraphs  that  follow.  In  the  first,  the  main 
thought  is  found  in  the  words,  "  A  man  is  a  fagot  of  thun- 
derbolts," and  "  We  only  believe  as  deep  as  we  live."  This 
thought  is  not  sufficiently  illustrated  for  the  general  reader, 
and  what  is  said  by  way  of  explanation  is  as  indefinite  in 
character  as  the  proposition  it  purports  to  explain.  The 
force  of  the  last  sentence  in  the  quotation  will  hardly  be 
felt  at  the  first  reading,  unless  one  happens  to  emphasize 

Elsewhere,  in  speaking  of  whole  compositions,  Professor  Wendell  iden- 
tifies mass  and  proportion :  "  We  have  now  reached  a  point  in  our  dis- 
cussion of  the  principle  of  Mass  where  I  believe  we  may  well  glance  at 
another  phase  of  it.  The  bulk  of  sentences  is  too  small  to  permit  this 
phase  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  them.  The  bulk  of  paragraphs 
is  large  enough  to  make  it  now  worth  attention.  In  whole  compositions 
we  shall  find  it  more  important  still.  Briefly  phrased,  it  is  simply  this: 
Due  proportion  should  subsist  between  principal  and  subordinate  matters." 

—  id.,  p.  131. 


20  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

the  word  we.  The  second  paragraph,  from  the  same 
writer,  is  quoted  as  an  illustration  of  the  perfect  fulfilment 
of  the  law  of  proportion. 

We  are  just  so  frivolous  and  sceptical.  Men  hold  themselves 
cheap  and  vile ;  and  yet  a  man  is  a  fagot  of  thunderbolts.  All  the 
elements  pour  through  his  system ;  he  is  the  flood  of  the  flood, 
and  fire  of  the  fire  ;  he  feels  the  antipodes  and  the  pole,  as  drops 
of  his  blood :  they  are  the  extension  of  his  personality.  His  duties 
are  measured  by  that  instrument  he  is ;  and  a  right  and  perfect 
man  would  be  felt  to  the  centre  of  the  Copernican  system.  'Tis 
curious  that  we  only  believe  as  deep  as  we  live.  We  do  not  think 
heroes  can  exert  any  more  awful  power  than  that  surface-play 
which  amuses  us.  A  deep  man  believes  in  miracles,  waits  for 
them,  believes  in  magic,  believes  that  the  orator  will  decompose 
his  adversary;  believes  that  the  evil  eye  can  wither,  that  the 
heart's  blessing  can  heal;  that  love  can  exalt  talent;  can  overcome 
all  odds.  From  a  great  heart  secret  magnetisms  flow  incessantly 
to  draw  great  events.  But  \ve  prize  very  humble  utilities,  a  pru- 
dent husband,  a  good  son,  a  voter,  a  citizen,  and  deprecate  any 
romance  of  character;  and  perhaps  reckon  only  his  money  value, 

—  his  intellect,  his  aifection,  as  a  sort  of  bill  of  exchange,  easily 
convertible  into  fine  chambers,  pictures,  music,  and  wine.  —  Emer- 
son :  Essay  on  Beauty. 

The  artist  who  is  to  produce  a  work  which  is  to  be  admired,  not 
by  his  friends  or  his  townspeople  or  his  contemporaries,  but  by  all 
men,  and  which  is  to  be  more  beautiful  to  the  eye  in  proportion 
to  its  culture,  must  disindividualize  himself,  and  be  a  man  of  no 
party,  and  no  manner,  and  no  age,  but  one  through  whom  the 
soul  of  all  men  circulates,  as  the  common  air  through  his  lungs. 
He  must  work  in  the  spirit  in  which  we  conceive  a  prophet  to 
speak,  or  an  angel  of  the  Lord  to  act ;  that  is,  he  is  not  to  speak 
his  own  words,  or  do  his  own  works,  or  think  his  own  thoughts, 
but  he  is  to  be  an  organ  through  which  the  universal  mind  acts. 

—  Emerson:  Essay  on  Art. 

The  two  paragraphs  cited  from  Emerson  are  of  about 
equal  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  thought ;  the  ease  of  com- 
prehension in  the  case  of  the  latter  and  the  difficulty  of 


PROPORTION.  21 

comprehension  in  the  case  of  the  former  are  fairly  attribu- 
table to  the  observance  of  the  law  of  proportion  in  the  one 
and  to  its  neglect  in  the  other. 

The  following  will  illustrate  undue  prominence  given  to 
a  subordinate  idea,  at  the  cost  of  clearness :  — 

(1)  If  we  would  study  with  profit  the  history  of  our  ancestors, 
we  must  be  constantly  on  our  guard  against  that  delusion  which 
the  well-known  names  of  families,  places,  and  offices  naturally 
produce,  and  must  never  forget  that  the  country  of  which  we 
read  was  a  very  different  country  from  that  in  which  we  live. 
(2)  In  every  experimental  science  there  is  a  tendency  towards 
perfection.  (3)  In  every  human  being  there  is  a  wish  to  amelior- 
ate his  own  condition.  (4)  These  two  principles  have  often 
sufficed,  even  when  counteracted  by  great  public  calamities  and 
by  bad  institutions,  to  carry  civilization  rapidly  forward.  (5)  No 
ordinary  misfortune,  no  ordinary  misgovernment,  will  do  so  much 
to  make  a  nation  wretched,  as  the  constant  progress  of  physical 
knowledge  and  the  constant  effort  of  every  man  to  better  himself 
will  do  to  make  a  nation  prosperous.  [Then  follows  a  page  show- 
ing the  vast  increase  of  wealth  in  England  during  the  last  six 
centuries  and  the  reasons  for  it.]  (1-)  The  consequence  is  that  a 
change  to  which  the  history  of  the  old  world  furnishes  no  parallel 
has  taken  place  in  our  country.  (1:5)  Could  the  England  of  1685 
be,  by  some  magical  process,  set  before  our  eyes,  we  should  not 
know  one  landscape  in  a  hundred  or  one  building  in  ten  thousand. 
[Another  page  of  details,  similar  to  those  in  the  last  sentence, 
follows.]  —  Macaulay:  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.,  chap.  iii. 

The  undue  prominence  given  to  the  second  and  third 
sentences,  stated  (as  they  are)  as  independent  propositions 
apparently  of  equal  importance  with  the  first  sentence  and 
illustrated  at  great  length,  occasions  doubt  in  the  mind  of 
the  reader  as  to  what  is  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph ; 
and  it  is  not  until  sentence  (12)  is  reached  that  it  becomes 
evident  that  sentence  (1)  contains,  after  all,  the  main  idea, 
and  that  the  ten  sentences  intervening  are  subordinate  and 
are  intended  to  account  for  the  fact  that  "the -country  of 


22  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

which  we  read  was  a  very  different  country  from  that  in 
which  we  live."  The  subordination  might  be  plainly  indi- 
cated, and  all  doubt  of  the  reader  removed,  by  introducing 
immediately  after  sentence  (1)  some  such  statement  as  this : 
"  In  the  course  of  centuries,  vast  differences  are  inevitably 
brought  about  in  a  country  by  the  operation  of  social  prin- 
ciples alone." 

The  following  paragraph,  which  illustrates  unnecessary 
amplification  of  a  self-evident  proposition,  is  termed  by  the 
writer  of  it  "  a  string  of  platitudes  " :  — 

Lucidity  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  sanity.  A  sane 
man  ought  not  to  be  unintelligible.  Lucidity  is  good  everywhere, 
for  all  time  and  in  all  things,  in  a  letter,  in  a  speech,  in  a  book, 
in  a  poem.  Lucidity  is  not  simplicity.  A  lucid  poem  is  not 
necessarily  an  easy  one.  A  great  poet  may  tax  our  brains,  but  he 
ought  not  to  puzzle  our  wits.  We  may  often  have  to  ask  in 
humility,  What  does  he  mean  ?  but  not  in  despair,  What  can  he 
mean?— A.  Birrell:  Obiter  Dicta. 

9.  Sequence.  —  The  law  of  sequence,  or  method,  requires 
that  the  sentences  be  presented  in  the  order  which  will  best 
bring  out  the  thought.  In  narrative  paragraphs  the  order  of 
events  in  time  is  usually  the  best ;  in  descriptions,  the  order 
of  objects  in  space  or  according  to  their  prominence.  In 
expository  or  argumentative  paragraphs,  climax,  or  that 
ordering  of  sentences  which  proceeds  steadily  from  the  least 
to  the  most  forcible  and  important,  will  sometimes  prove  to 
be  the  best  method.  But  usually,  the  thought  of  each  para- 
graph as  it  develops  will  dictate  the  natural  sequence  of  the 
sentences. 

A  good  sequence  of  sentences  will  result  in  the  literary 
virtue  that  is  called  Coherence.  Close  attention  to  words  of 
connection  and  subordination  and  to  the  adjustment  of  each 
sentence  to  the  one  preceding  it  (see  §  §  27—28)  will  do  much 
in  securing  this  valuable  quality. 


SEQUENCE.  23 

In  the  following  paragraph,  a  logical  method  is  strictly 
observed,  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  sentences  particular- 
izing the  idea  of  "prerogative,"  and  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh,  the  idea  of  "purity." 

The  watchwords  of  the  new  government  were  prerogative  and 
purity.  The  sovereign  was  no  longer  to  be  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of 
any  subject,  or  of  any  combination  of  subjects.  George  the  Third 
would  not  be  forced  to  take  ministers  whom  he  disliked,  as  his 
grandfather  had  been  forced  to  take  Pitt.  George  the  Third  would 
not  be  forced  to  part  with  any  whom  he  delighted  to  honor,  as  his 
grandfather  had  been  forced  to  part  with  Carteret.  At  the  same  time, 
the  system  of  bribery  which  had  grown  up  during  the  late  reigns  was 
to  cease.  It  was  ostentatiously  proclaimed  that,  since  the  accession  of 
the  young  King,  neither  constituents  nor  representatives  had  been 
bought  with  the  secret  service  money.  To  free  Britain  from  corrup- 
tion and  oligarchical  cabals,  to  detach  her  from  continental  connec- 
tions, to  bring  the  bloody  and  expensive  war  with  France  and  Spain 
to  a  close,  such  were  the  specious  objects  which  Bute  professed  to 
procure.  —  Macaulay :  Second  Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  p.  40. 

The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  order  of  climax. 
The  clauses  of  the  last  sentence  grow  in  length,  power,  and 
in  volume  both  of  sound  and  of  idea  until  the  end  is  reached 
in  the  strongest  words. 

The  great  wheel  of  political  revolution  began  to  move  in  America. 
Here  its  rotation  was  guarded,  regular,  and  safe.  Transferred  to  the 
other  continent,  from  unfortunate  but  natural  causes,  it  received  an 
irregular  and  violent  impulse ;  it  whirled  along  with  a  fearful  celerity; 
till  at  length,  like  the  chariot  wheels  in  the  races  of  antiquity,  it  took 
fire  from  the  rapidity  of  its  own  motion,  and  blazed  onward,  spread- 
ing conflagration  and  terror  around.  —  Webster :  First  Bunker  Hill 
Oration. 

The  first  of  the  two  paragraphs  which  follow  illustrates 
in  the  last  three  sentences  what  may  be  called  the  alter- 
nating method,  in  which  the  main  idea  (that  of  "  sublimity  ") 
occurs,  under  different  forms  of  expression,  in  every  sen- 
tence, accompanied  in  each  case  by  the  statement  of  some 


24  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

other  characteristic  of  Milton's  style,  of  lesser  importance. 
The  three  lesser  qualities  mentioned  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  climax.  The  second  of  these  two  paragraphs  is 
quoted  for  the  sake  of  completeness. 

He  had  considered  creation  in  its  whole  extent,  and  his  descrip- 
tions are  therefore  learned.  He  had  accustomed  his  imagination  to 
unrestrained  indulgence,  and  his  conceptions  therefore  were  exten- 
sive. The  characteristic  quality  of  his  poem  is  sublimity.  He 
sometimes  descends  to  the  elegant,  but  his  element  is  the  great.  He 
can  occasionally  invest  himself  with  grace;  but  his  natural  port  is 
gigantic  loftiness.  He  can  please  when  pleasure  is  required;  but 
it  is  his  peculiar  power  to  astonish. 

He  seems  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  his  own  genius,  and 
to  know  what  it  was  that  nature  had  bestowed  upon  him  more  bounti- 
fully than  upon  others ;  the  power  of  displaying  the  vast,  illuminating 
the  splendid,  enforcing  the  awful,  darkening  the  gloomy,  and  aggra- 
vating the  dreadful ;  he  therefore  chose  a  subject  on  which  too  much 
could  not  be  said,  on  which  he  might  tire  his  fancy  without  the  cen- 
sure of  extravagance.  —  Johnson  :  Life  of  Milton. 

In  the  last  paragraph  just  quoted,  the  logical  method  is : 

(1)  Milton's  knowledge  of  the  character  of  his  own  genius, 

(2)  what  that  character  was,  (3)  result  of  this  knowledge  on 
his  choice  of  a  subject. 

10.  Variety.  —  The  law  of  variety  requires  that  as  much 
diversity  as  is  consistent  with  the  purpose  of  the  paragraph  be 
introduced.  Variety  will  appear  iu  length  of  sentences,  in 
their  structure,  in  phraseology,  in  the  ordering  of  details, 
and  in  the  method  of  building  different  paragraphs.  Vari- 
ety in  the  length  of  different  paragraphs  as  well  as  in  their 
structure  is  also  desirable. 

To  illustrate  fully  this  important  law  is  obviously  im- 
possible. Let  the  student  note  carefully  the  paragraphs 
already  quoted :  — 

First,  as  to  length  of  sentences.  The  use  of  both  long 
and  short  sentences  will  be  noticed  as  helpful  in  sustaining 


VARIETY.  25 

the  reader's  interest.  Observe  the  forceful  but  curt  and 
choppy  effect  of  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  short  sentences 
in  the  first  quotation  from  Emerson;  equal  length  giving 
all  of  the  sentences  equal  prominence,  thus  making  the 
main  idea  harder  to  find.  In  the  other  quotations,  note 
that  one  use  of  the  short  sentence  is  to  state  forcibly  the 
main  thought  in  brief,  the  longer  sentences  being  devoted 
to  explanations  or  details.  Point  out  instances  of  this, 
especially  in  the  quotation  from  Dryden.  Observe  also  the 
smooth  effect  of  the  long  sentences.  It  is  the  character  of 
the  thought  of  the  paragraph  that  decides  in  many  cases 
whether  the  sentence  shall  be  long  or  short.  Point  this  out 
in  the  quotations  from  Emerson,  Macaulay,  and  Webster. 

Secondly,  as  to  structure  of  sentences.  Point  out  the 
various  ways  in  which  the  sentences  of  these  quotations 
begin.  Is  the  subject  introduced  first  in  all  cases  ?  Notice, 
in  reading  Emerson's  first  paragraph,  after  several  short  sen- 
tences constructed  alike,  the  relief  occasioned  by  the  slight 
change  of  structure  in  the  seventh  sentence  beginning 
"  From  a  great  heart,"  etc.  Find  examples  of  sentences 
in  these  quotations  in  which  the  full  idea  is  not  apparent 
until  the  close  of  the  sentence  is  reached  (Periodic  struc- 
ture). Notice  in  the  conversational  paragraphs  of  the  first 
quotation  examples  of  loose  structure,  in  which  the  sentence 
might  come  to  a  full  stop  before  the  close,  and  still  make 
sense.  Find  other  examples  of  this.  Find  examples  of 
balanced  structure,  in  which  the  different  elements  of  a 
sentence  are  made  to  answer  to  each  other  and  set  each 
other  off  by  similarity  of  form ;  especially  in  the  quotations 
from  Macaulay,  Dryden,  Johnson,  and  Emerson.  Find 
examples  in  which  whole  sentences  have  this  similarity  of 
form  and  answer  to  each  other.  Do  the  complex  sentences 
usually  contain  the  main  idea  of  these  paragraphs  ?  Note 
that  it  is  the  nature  of  the  thought  which  makes  some  of 
the  sentences  interrogative  and  which  causes  other  depart- 


26  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

ures  from  the  usual  form  of  sentence  structure.  Find  ex- 
amples  of  this. 

Thirdly,  as  to  phraseology.  Notice,  first,  variety  in  the 
words  used  for  expressing  the  same  idea  in  a  paragraph. 
What  words  in  the  quotation  from  Hamerton  bring  out  the 
idea  of  "  frivolous  "  ?  What,  in  the  second  quotation  from 
Emerson,  the  idea  of  "disindividualize  "  ?  What,  in  the  next 
quotation  (from  Macaulay),  the  idea  of  "difference  and 
change "  ?  What,  in  the  quotation  from  Dr.  Johnson,  the 
idea  of  "  sublimity  "  ?  Notice,  next,  the  variety  in  the  rela- 
tion-words (of,  by,  to,  from,  for,  etc.)  which  introduce  different 
phrases.  The  value  to  a  writer  of  having  a  large  stock  of  expe- 
dients for  securing  variety  in  introducing  phrases  is  very 
great.  Some  writers  overwork  the  relation-word  of,  when,  by 
a  slight  modification  in  phrase-structure,  other  relation- 
words  might  be  used  instead  and  the  sentence  improved. 
For  practice  try  the  plan  of  substituting  adjectives  for  some 
of  the  phrases  in  the  quoted  paragraphs  on  the  preceding 
pages.  Notice  that  such  substitutions  often  compel  re- 
modeling the  whole  sentence. 

Fourthly,  as  to  ordering  of  details  and  method  of  build- 
ing different  paragraphs.  These  subjects  will  be  considered 
more  fully  at  a  later  stage  of  our  study.  At  present,  notice 
the  variety  in  method  of  presenting  the  various  details  in 
Macaulay's  descriptive  paragraph.  (See  Selection.)  Do 
you  find  anything  to  criticise  in  the  order  of  the  sen- 
tences ? 

It  will  be  found  in  practice  that  the  close  observance  of 
any  one  of  the  general  laws,  unity,  selection,  proportion, 
and  sequence,  will  tend  to  give  a  paragraph  the  qualities 
required  by  the  other  three.  For  instance,  the  rearrange- 
ment of  the  order  (method)  of  the  sentences  will  often 
secure  unity  to  a  paragraph  which  seemed  without  unity. 
The  law  of  unity  Xinderstood  in  a  large  sense  would  include 
selection,  proportion,  and  sequence.  These,  however,  have 


THEME  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH.  27 

been  deemed  worthy  of  study  by  themselves.  A  good 
maxim,  summing  up  these  laws,  is,  In  writing  paragraphs, 
aim  at  unity  of  thought  and  variety  of  statement. 


C.     THE   ISOLATED   PARAGRAPH. 


11.  The  isolated  paragraph  was  defined  in  §  4  as  a  single 
paragraph  which  in  itself  gives  an  adequate  treatment  of  any 
subject  or  of  a  single  phase  of  any  subject.     By  the  expres- 
sion "adequate  treatment"  is  meant,  not  all  that  might  be 
said  on  a  given  subject,  but  enough  for  the  purpose  in  hand, 
whatever  that  may  chance  to  be.     Adequate  treatment  is 
therefore  treatment  sufficiently  complete  for  carrying  out 
the  writer's  purpose.     The  following  short  paragraph  taken 
from  Thomas  Carlyle's  James  Cartyle  will   illustrate  this 
satisfying  effect,  this  sense  of  completeness :  — 

The  first  impulse  of  man  is  to  seek  for  enjoyment.  He  lives 
with  more  or  less  impetuosity,  more  or  less  irregularity,  to  conquer 
for  himself  a  home  and  blessedness  of  a  mere  earthly  kind.  Not 
till  later  (in  how  many  cases  never)  does  he  ascertain  that  on 
earth  there  is  no  such  home  :  that  his  true  home  lies  beyond  the 
world  of  sense,  is  a  celestial  home. 

12.  Paragraph  Subject.  —  Every  paragraph  should  have 
a  clearly  defined  idea  to  the  development  of  which  each 
sentence  contributes.     The  idea  must  not  be  too  broad  for 
brief  treatment ;  but  this  is  easily  managed,  since  any  idea 
may  be  narrowed  by  imposing  upon  it  successive  conditions 
and  limitations  of  time,  place,  point  of  view,  etc. 

To  illustrate:  General  subject  —  « The  Study  of  Latin." 
Subject  limited  to  a  single  point  of  view — "  Uses  of  Latin 
study."  Limited  further,  as  to  place  —  "Uses  of  Latin 
study  to  American  students."  Limited  further,  as  to  time 
—  "  Uses  of  Latin  study  to  American  students  of  the  present 


28  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

time."  Limited  further,  by  selection,  to  available  theme  — 
"  Use  of  Latin  study  to  American  students  of  the  present 
time  in  widening  their  English  vocabulary" 

The  general  subject  is  the  broad  statement  of  a  general 
idea  without  limitation.  The  theme  is  the  general  subject 
narrowed  in  scope  and  made  definite  by  limitation,  so  as  to 
show  the  purpose  of  the  writer.  The  full  statement  of  the 
theme  is  often  long  and  unattractive.  The  theme  may 
be  restated  in  a  briefer  and  more  attractive  form.  It 
is  then  called  a  title.  A  briefer  statement  of  the  theme 
in  the  illustration  above,  to  be  used  as  a  paragraph-title, 
might  be,  "  One  Reason  for  Studying  Latin"  The  title 
should  be  suggestive  of  the  theme,  but  should  not  over- 
state the  theme.  Most  themes  may  be  used  as  titles  with- 
out restatement. 

Examples  of  paragraph-titles  may  be  found  in  the  news- 
papers and  in  the  marginal  notes  of  such  books  as  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Gardiner's  Thirty  Years'  War, 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Creighton's  Age  of  Elizabeth, 
and  Hallam's  Works.  The  shorter  isolated  paragraphs  to 
be  found  in  the  editorial  columns  of  the  newspapers  and  the 
related  paragraphs  of  most  books  are  usually  printed  with- 
out titles. 

13.  The  Topic-statement.  —  The  theme  of  the  paragraph  is 
usually  expressed  definitely  and  unmistakably  in  one  of  the 
sentences,  called  the  topic-statement.  This  is  the  outward  sign 
and  announcement  of  the  paragraph's  unity.  The  topic- 
statement  is  generally  most  effective  when  short  and  strik- 
ing. It  is  often  found  to  be,  however,  not  a  whole  sentence 
in  itself,  but  only  a  part  of  a  sentence,  what  precedes 
being  obviously  preparatory  to  its  more  forcible  presenta- 
tion. Sometimes  the  topic-statement  need  not  be  expressed 
definitely.  In  such  a  paragraph  the  topic  is  implied  in  all 
that  is  said.  The  test  of  a  good  paragraph  of  this  kind  is 


THE  TOPIC-STATEMENT.  29 

the  possibility  of  phrasing  the  main  idea  which  it  contains 
in  a  single  sentence.  Whether  expressed  or  implied,  there- 
fore, the  topic-statement  should  exist  as  a  working  theme  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer  while  constructing  each  sentence, 
and  the  bearing  of  each  sentence  on  the  paragraph-theme 
should  be  clear  and  distinct. 

14.  The  Place  of  the  Topic-statement.     Topic-statement 
First.  —  Many  paragraphs   require   a  formal   statement  of 
the  theme.     This  is  usually  true  when  the  paragraph  con- 
sists of  a  principle  that  is  proved  by  particular  examples, 
or  when  a  general  idea  is  expounded  by  argument,  or  when 
a  formal  proposition  is  treated.     In  such  cases  the  theme  is 
usually  announced  in  the  first  sentence.     The  following  will 
illustrate :  — 

[Topic-statement]  I  believe  the  Chinese  people  to  possess  all 
the  mental  and  physical  qualities  required  for  national  greatness. 
[Pac^iH^lars]  They  love  the  land  of  their  birth  with  a  superstitious 
reverence;  they  believe  in  their  own  superiority,  and  despise  all 
other  races.  They  are  fine  men,  endowed  with  great  powers  of 
endurance ;  industrious  and  thrifty,  they  have  few  wants  and  can 
live  on  little,  and  that  little,  poor  food.  Absolutely  indifferent  to 
death,  they  are  fearless  and  brave,  and  when  well  trained  and  well 
led  make  first-rate  soldiers.  I  have  seen  them  under  fire,  and  found 
them  cool  and  undismayed  by  danger.  —  Lord  Wolseley. 

15.  Topic-statement  First  and  Last.  —  Sometimes,  to  em- 
phasize the  leading  idea,  the   topic  is  stated  both  at  the 
beginning   and  at  the  end   of   a  paragraph.     When   the 
thought  is  sufficiently  important  to  justify  such  emphasis, 
this  practice  is  commendable,  for  the  repetition  of  the  sub- 
ject at  the  close  completes  the  circuit  of  the  thought  and 
gives  the  appearance  of  finished  roundness  to  the  whole 
idea.     This  plan  is  especially  commendable  in  spoken  para- 
graphs, the  repetition,  in  this  case,  being  a  notification  to  the 


30  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

hearer  that  the  discussion  of  the  point  in  hand  is  finished. 
The  following  will  illustrate  these  statements :  — 

[Topic-statement]  The  grand  reason  for  paying  debt  is  that  we 
.want  to  strengthen  the  credit  of  the  State  as  the  cheapest  and  best  of  all 
insurances.  [Example]  If  any  one  doubts  that,  let  him  look  at 
the  position  of  the  United  States.  That  grand  republic  has  no 
fleet,  and  on  the  water  could  hardly  fight  Spain ;  but  she  has 
reduced  her  debt  by  strenuous  paying,  and  every  one  knows  that 
if  she  wanted  a  fleet  to  blow  Spain  out  of  the  water,  or  to  contest 
the  seas  with  us,  she  could  buy  and  complete  one  in  twelve  months. 
[Topic  repeated]  Her  payment  of  her  debt  is  an  insurance,  not  only 
against  defeat,  but  against  attack.  —  London  [England]  Spectator. 

I  begin  with  the  postulate,  that  [Topic-statement]  it  is  the  law  of 
our  nature  to  desire  happiness.  This  law  is  not  local,  but  universal ; 
not  temporary,  but  eternal.  It  is  not  a  law  to  be  proved  by  excep- 
tions, for  it  knows  no  exception.  [Examples]  The  savage  and  the 
martyr  welcome  fierce  pains,  not  because  they  love  pain,  but 
because  they  love  some  expected  remuneration  of  happiness  so 
well,  that  they  are  willing  to  purchase  it  at  the  price  of  the 
pain,  —  at  the  price  of  imprisonment,  torture,  or  death.  [Another 
example]  The  young  desire  happiness  more  keenly  than  any 
others.  The  desire  is  innate,  spontaneous,  exuberant ;  and  noth- 
ing but  repeated  and  repeated  overflows  of  the  lava  of  disappoint- 
ment can  burn  or  bury  it  in  the  human  breast.  On  this  law  of 
our  nature,  then,  we  may  stand  as  on  an  immovable  foundation  of 
truth.  Whatever  fortune  may  befall  our  argument,  our  premises 
are  secure.  [Topic  repeated]  The  conscious  desire  of  happiness 
is  active  in  all  men.  —  Horace  Mann  :  Thoughts  for  a  Young  Man. 

16.  Topic-statement  Last.  —  The  details  of  a  paragraph 
may,  in  special  cases,  precede  the  statement  of  the  subject ; 
the  proofs  may  be  presented  before  the  proposition  is  stated. 
In  such  cases  the  topic-statement  may  be  delayed  until  the 
close  of  the  paragraph.  This  plan  will  usually  be  found 
expedient  when  the  thought  is  not  likely  to  be  favorably 
received  if  stated  abruptly  at  the  beginning,  when  the 
topic-statement  contains  an  unwelcome  truth,  or  when  some 


THE  TOPIC-STATEMENT.  31 

new  idea  is  presented  to  which  the  reader  is  not  at  once 
prepared  to  assent.     For  example:  — 

We  have  new  evidence  of  the  treacherous  character  of  the  Sioux 
Indians  in  the  tragedy  at  Wounded  Knee  Creek.  When  their  sur- 
roundings are  considered  their  treachery  is  not  a  subject  for  wonder. 
The  Sioux  lad  is  taught  that  duplicity,  lying,  treachery,  theft,  and 
bloodshed  are  the  manly  attributes.  He  must  be  very  wily  about 
shedding  blood,  but  is  nothing  but  a  "  squaw  "  until  he  has  a  scalp 
at  his  belt.  Then  he  is  fed  by  the  Government,  clothed  by  the 
Government,  sheltered  by  the  Government  —  that  is,  maintained  in 
absolute  idleness,  while  he  broods  over  real  or  fancied  wrongs. 
When  he  gets  worked  up  to  the  proper  pitch  of  frenzy  he  wants  to 
kill  somebody,  and  generally  does  kill  somebody  if  he  is  not  killed 
himself.  It  has  been  the  Government  policy  to  treat  the  Indian  as 
a  spoiled  child  rather  than  as  the  dangerous  brute  that  he  is. 
[Topic-statement]  The  events  of  the  present  Indian  outbreak  have 
made  it  clear  that  the  policy  of  gentleness  is  disastrous  both  to  the 
country  and  to  the  Indian.  — The  Press  (N.Y.). 

In  the  following  paragraph  the  subject,  while  it  is  hinted 
at  in  the  second  sentence,  is  purposely  denied  full  and  defi- 
nite statement  until  the  very  last  sentence :  — 

I  will  not  ask  your  pardon  for  endeavoring  to  interest  you  in  the 
subject  of  Greek  Mythology;  but  I  must  ask  your  permission  to  ap- 
proach it  in  a  temper  differing  from  that  in  which  it  is  frequently 
treated.  We  cannot  justly  interpret  the  religion  of  any  people, 
unless  we  are  prepared  to  admit  that  we  ourselves,  as  well  as  they, 
are  liable  to  error  in  matters  of  faith ;  and  that  the  convictions  of 
others,  however  singular,  may  in  some  points  have  been  well 
founded,  while  our  own,  however  reasonable,  may  in  some  particu- 
lars be  mistaken.  You  must  forgive  me,  therefore,  for  not  always 
distinctively  calling  the  creeds  of  the  past  "  superstition,"  and  the 
creeds  of  the  present  day  "  religion  " ;  as  well  as  for  assuming  that 
a  faith  now  confessed  may  sometimes  be  superficial,  and  that  a 
faith  long  forgotten  may  once  have  been  sincere.  It  is  the  task  of 
the  Divine  to  condemn  the  errors  of  antiquity  and  of  the  Philologist 
to  account  for  them.  I  will  only  pray  you  to  read  with  patience, 
and  human  sympathy,  the  thoughts  of  men  who  lived  without 


32  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

blame  in  a  darkness  they  could  not  dispel;  and  to  remember  that, 
whatever  charge  of  folly  may  justly  attach  to  the  saying,  "  There 
is  no  God,"  the  folly  is  prouder,  deeper,  and  less  pardonable,  in  say- 
ing, "  There  is  no  God  but  for  me."  —  Ruskin  :  Queen  of  the  Air. 

17.  Topic-statement  Implied.  —  In  a  large  number  of  cases, 
however,  the  theme  cannot  be  stated  so  directly ;  it  is  not 
found  expressed  in  a  topic-statement  anywhere  in  the  para- 
graph, but  must  be  grasped  by  the  reader  from  the  effect  pro- 
duced upon  him  by  the  paragraph  as  a  whole.  If  the  effect 
is  single,  is  an  effect  of  oneness  and  of  unity,  the  reader  will 
be  able  to  supply  for  himself,  in  thought,  the  theme  of  the 
paragraph ;  —  and  the  test  of  a  good  paragraph  will  always 
be  his  ability  to  do  this.  But  a  paragraph  cannot  produce 
the  effect  of  unity  upon  the  reader  unless  there  was  unity 
of  idea  or  of  feeling  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  when  the 
paragraph  was  written.  It  is  of  especial  importance,  there- 
fore, in  the  case  of  paragraphs  which  have  no  formally 
stated  topic-statement  to  hold  the  writer  to  his  theme,  that 
the  writer  keep  his  theme  prominently  in  mind  while  con- 
structing each  sentence.  This  is  very  important  in  writing 
narrative  and  descriptive  paragraphs.  In  these,  it  is  sel- 
dom that  the  theme  is  expressed  in  so  many  words.  Yet 
a  good  narrative  or  descriptive  writer  will  so  marshal  his 
details  that  the  effect  will  be  single. 

The  following  paragraph,  of  which  the  subject  may  be 
stated  as  "  The  Skill  and  Intelligence  of  the  Loon  in  Div- 
ing," illustrates  this  unity  of  effect :  — 

As  I  was  paddling  along  the  north  shore  one  very  calm  October 
afternoon  .  .  .  having  looked  in  vain  over  the  pond  for  a  loon,  sud- 
denly one,  sailing  out  from  the  shore  towards  the  middle  a  few 
rods  in  front  of  me,  set  up  his  wild  laugh  and  betrayed  himself. 
I  pursued  with  a  paddle  and  he  dived,  but  when  he  came  up  I  was 
nearer  than  before.  He  dived  again,  but  I  miscalculated  the  di- 
rection he  would  take,  and  we  were  fifty  rods  apart  when  he  came 
to  the  surface  this  time,  for  I  had  helped  to  widen  the  interval ; 


THE  TOPIC-STATEMENT.  33 

and  again  he  laughed  long  and  loud,  and  with  more  reason  than 
before.  He  manreuvred  so  cunningly  that  I  could  not  get  within 
half  a  dozen  rods  of  him.  Each  time,  when  he  came  to  the  sur- 
face, turning  his  head  this  way  and  that,  he  coolly  surveyed  the 
water  and  the  land  and  apparently  chose  his  course  so  that  he 
might  come  up  where  there  was  the  widest  expanse  of  water,  and 
the  greatest  distance  from  the  boat.  It  was  surprising  how 
quickly  he  made  up  his  mind  and  put  his  resolve  into  execution. 
He  led  me  at  once  to  the  widest  part  of  the  pond,  and  could  not 
be  driven  from  it.  While  he  was  thinking  one  thing  in  his  brain, 
I  was  endeavoring  to  divine  his  thought  in  mine.  It  was  a 
pretty  game,  played  on  the  smooth  surface  of  the  pond,  a  man 
against  a  loon.  Suddenly  your  adversary's  checker  disappears 
beneath  the  board,  and  the  problem  is  to  place  yours  nearest  to 
where  his  will  appear  again.  Sometimes  he  would  come  up  un- 
expectedly on  the  opposite  side  of  me,  having  apparently  passed 
directly  under  the  boat.  So  long-winded  was  he  and  so  unweari- 
able,  that  when  he  had  swum  farthest  he  would  immediately 
plunge  again,  nevertheless ;  and  then  no  wit  could  divine  where 
in  the  deep  pond,  beneath  the  smooth  surface,  he  might  be  speed- 
ing his  way  like  a  fish,  for  he  had  time  and  ability  to  visit  the 
bottom  of  the  pond  in  its  deepest  part.  It  is  said  that  loons  have 
been  caught  in  the  New  York  lakes  eighty  feet  beneath  the  sur- 
face, with  hooks  set  for  trout,  —  though  Walden  is  deeper  than 
that.  How  surprised  must  the  fishes  be  to  see  this  ungainly 
visitor  from  another  sphere  speeding  his  way  amid  their  schools ! 
Yet  he  appeared  to  know  his  course  as  surely  under  water  as 
on  the  surface,  and  swam  much  faster  there.  Once  or  twice  I 
saw  a  ripple  where  he  approached  the  surface,  just  put  his  head 
out  to  reconnoitre,  and  instantly  dived  again.  I  found  that  it  was 
as  well  for  me  to  rest  on  my  oars  and  wait  his  reappearing  as  to 
endeavor  to  calculate  where  he  would  rise;  for  again  and  again, 
when  I  was  straining  my  eyes  over  the  surface  one  way,  I  would 
suddenly  be  startled  by  his  unearthly  laugh  behind  me.  But 
why,  after  displaying  so  much  cunning,  did  he  invariably  betray 
himself  the  moment  he  came  up  by  that  loud  laugh?  Did  not  his 
white  breast  enough  betray  him?  He  was  indeed  a  silly  loon,  I 
thought.  I  could  commonly  hear  the  plash  of  the  water  when  he 
came  up,  and  so  also  detected  him.  But  after  an  hour  he  seemed 


34  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

as  fresh  as  ever,  dived  as  willingly,  and  swam  yet  farther  than  at 
first.  It  was  surprising  to  see  how  serenely  he  sailed  off  with  un- 
ruffled breast  when  he  came  to  the  surface,  doing  all  the  work 
with  his  webbed  feet  beneath.  His  usual  note  was  this  demoniac 
laughter,  yet  somewhat  like  that  of  a  water-fowl ;  but  occasion- 
ally, when  he  had  balked  me  most  successfully  and  come  up  a 
long  way  off,  he  muttered  a  long-drawn  unearthly  howl,  probably 
more  like  that  of  a  wolf  than  any  bird  ;  as  when  a  beast  puts  his 
muzzle  to  the  ground  and  deliberately  howls.  This  was  his  loon- 
ing,  —  perhaps  the  wildest  sound  that  is  ever  heard  here,  making 
the  woods  ring  far  and  wide.  I  concluded  that  he  laughed  in 
derision  of  my  efforts,  confident  of  his  own  resources.  Though  the 
sky  was  by  this  time  overcast,  the  pond  was  so  smooth  that  I 
could  see  where  he  broke  the  surface  when  I  did  not  hear  him. 
His  white  breast,  the  stillness  of  the  air,  and  the  smoothness  of  the 
water  were  all  against  him.  At  length,  having  come  up  fifty  rods 
off,  he  uttered  one  of  those  prolonged  howls,  as  if  calling  on  the 
god  of  loons  to  aid  him,  and  immediately  there  came  a  wind  from 
the  east  and  rippled  the  surface,  and  filled  the  whole  air  with 
misty  rain,  and  I  was  impressed  as  if  it  were  the  prayer  of  the 
loon  answered,  and  his  god  was  angry  with  me ;  and  so  I  left  him 
disappearing  far  away  on  the  tumultuous  surface.  —  Thoreau : 
Walden,  Brute  Neighbors. 


MEANS  OF  DEVELOPING  THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME. 

18.  We  shall  now  study  some  of  the  means  by  which  the 
idea  or  theme  of  a  paragraph,  as  given  formally  in  the  topic- 
statement  or  held  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  may  be  system- 
atically developed.  If  we  regard  the  topic-statement  as  the 
germ-idea,  it  is  evident  that  it  contains,  potentially,  all  that 
may  be  said  on  the  subject  in  hand.  The  work  of  the  other 
sentences  is  to  bring  out  and  develop  clearly  the  thought 
contained  in  the  topic-statement,  or  so  much  of  the  thought 
as  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  which  the  writer  has  in 
view.  The  means  by  which  they  do  this  will,  of  course,  vary 
in  different  cases  j  and  the  forms  in  which  the  growing  idea 


DEVELOPING   THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.  35 

clothes  itself  as  the  paragraph  progresses  will  present  many 
different  modifications. 

These  means  of  developing  the  germ-idea  are  the  typical 
methods  of  growth  of  ail  the  forms  of  discourse.  Although 
they  are  numerous  and  various,  they  may  be  grouped,  for 
practical  purposes,  under  the  following  heads :  (a)  Develop- 
ment by  particulars  and  details,  (6)  Development  by  defini- 
tive statements  which  repeat,  restrict,  or  enlarge  the  idea 
and  may  take  the  form  of  contrasts,  positive  or  negative, 
(c)  Development  by  comparison  and  illustration,  (d)  De- 
velopment by  specific  instances  or  examples,  (e)  Develop- 
ment by  presenting  reasons,  (/)  Development  by  applying 
a  principle,  (g)  Development  by  stating  causes  and  effects 
or  results.  Any  sentence  which  performs  one  of  these 
functions  may  claim  a  place  in  the  paragraph;  any  sentence 
(not  introductory,  transitional,  or  summarizing)  which  does 
none  of  these  things  should  be  excluded. 

These  means  of  developing  the  paragraph-theme  are 
employed  in  various  combinations.  The  same  paragraph 
may  use  one  or  several  of  them.  Which  of  them  the  writer 
should  use  in  a  given  case  will  be  determined  by  his  pur- 
pose, by  the  kind  of  audience  for  which  he  conceives  him- 
self to  be  writing,  and  by  the  demands  of  the  thought 
expressed  in  the  paragraph-theme.  A  number  of  these 
combinations  will  be  designated  in  the  selections  quoted 
by  way  of  illustration  in  the  pages  that  follow. 

19.  Development  by  Particulars  and  Details.  —  The  topic- 
statement  may  contain  an  expression  which  naturally  leads 
the  reader  to  expect  that  particulars  and  details  will  imme- 
diately follow.  When,  for  instance,  one  reads  that  "  The 
isle  was  strange  and  delicate,"  one  wishes  to  know  at  once 
what  prompted  the  writer  to  describe  the  isle  by  these 
adjectives.  And  when  one  reads,  "  There  is  scarcely  a  scene 
or  object  familiar  to  the  Galilee  of  that  day  which  Jesus 


36  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

did  not  use  as  a  moral  illustration  of  some  glorious  promise 
or  moral  law,"  one  expects  an  enumeration  of  scenes  and 
objects.  Thus  the  paragraph-idea  develops  from  the  topic- 
statement  by  the  fulfilment  of  the  implied  promise  which 
the  topic-statement  makes  to  the  reader.  The  particulars 
and  details  will  be  descriptive  or  narrative,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  assertion  made  in  the  topic-statement. 

[Topic]  The  isle  —  the  undiscovered,  the  scarce  believed  in  — 
now  lay  before  them  and  close  aboard ;  and  Herrick  thought  that 
never  in  his  dreams  had  he  beheld  anything  more  strange  and 
delicate.  [Particulars]  The  beach  was  excellently  white,  the 
continuous  barrier  of  trees  inimitably  green;  the  land  perhaps 
ten  feet  high,  the  trees  thirty  more.  Every  here  and  there,  as  the 
schooner  coasted  northward,  the  wood  was  intermitted;  and  he 
could  see  clear  over  the  inconsiderable  strip  of  land  (as  a  man 
looks  over  a  wall)  to  the  lagoon  within ;  and  clear  over  that,  again, 
to  where  the  far  side  of  the  atoll  prolonged  its  pencilling  of  trees 
against  the  morning  sky.  He  tortured  himself  to  find  analogies. 
The  isle  was  like  the  rim  of  a  great  vessel  sunken  in  the  waters ; 
it  was  like  the  embankment  of  an  annular  railway  grown  upon 
with  wood.  So  slender  it  seemed  amidst  the  outrageous  breakers, 
so  frail  and  pretty,  he  would  scarce  have  wondered  to  see  it  sink 
and  disappear  without  a  sound,  and  the  waves  close  smoothly  over 
its  descent.  —  Stevenson:  The  Amateur  Emigrant. 

[Topic]  There  is  scarcely  a  scene  or  object  familiar  to  the 
Galilee  of  that  day  which  Jesus  did  not  use  as  a  moral  illustra- 
tion of  some  glorious  promise  or  moral  law.  [Details]  He  spoke 
of  green  fields  and  springing  flowers,  and  the  budding  of  the 
vernal  trees;  of  the  red  or  lowering  sky;  of  sunrise  and  sunset; 
of  wind  and  rain ;  of  night  and  storm;  of  clouds  and  lightning; 
of  stream  and  river;  of  stars  and  lamps;  of  honey  and  salt;  of 
quivering  bulrushes  and  burning  weeds ;  of  rent  garments  and 
bursting  wine-skins;  of  eggs  and  serpents;  of  pearls  and  pieces 
of  money;  of  nets  and  fish.  Wine  and  wheat,  corn  and  oil, 
stewards  and  gardeners,  laborers  and  employers,  kings  and  shep- 
herds, travellers  and  fathers  of  families,  courtiers  in  soft  clothing 
and  brides  in  nuptial  robes  —  all  these  are  found  in  His  discourses. 
—  Farrar :  Life  of  Christ,  Vol.  I.,  p.  271. 


DEVELOPING   THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.  37 

20.  Development  by  Definitive  Statements.  —  The  topic- 
statement  does  not  always  give  the  exact  content  of  the 
paragraph-idea.  Sometimes  it  may  require  merely  a  repe- 
tition in  simpler  terms  or  the  use  of  synonymous  expres- 
sions (as  in  the  selections  from  Drummond  and  Swinburne 
below),  since  these  are  almost  instinctively  resorted  to  when 
one  is  striving  to  make  one's  exact  meaning  clear.  Some- 
times it  ma}'  be  misunderstood  to  include  more  or  less  than 
the  writer  intends.  The  writer  will  therefore  often  define 
his  meaning,  restricting  or  enlarging  the  content  of  the 
terms  of  the  topic-statement,  as  these  are  usually  under- 
stood, to  the  limits  desired.  In  the  selection  from  Ruskin 
below  the  content  of  the  term  advancement  in  life,  as  com- 
monly understood,  is  restricted  or  lessened  by  the  defini- 
tive statement ;  in  the  selection  from  Macaulay  the  content 
of  the  term  mannerism,  as  commonly  understood,  is  greatly 
enlarged  by  the  definitive  statement.  Frequently  the  writer 
will  tell  in  so  many  words  what  he  does  not  mean,  or  what, 
the  idea  does  not  include,  as  in  the  selection  from  Kuskin. 
This  method  might  be  called  definition  by  negative  exclu- 
sion. He  will  perhaps  then  tell  what  he  does  mean.  This 
might  be  called  definition  by  positive  inclusion.  Whenever 
the  writer  does  this,  he  is  making  a  contrast  between  pos- 
sible meanings  not  intended  by  him  and  his  real  meaning. 
Not  all  contrasts,  however,  involve  the  negative  form  of 
statement;  the  selection  from  Kingsley  below  does  not; 
but  every  contrast,  whether  negative  or  positive  in  form, 
has  the  effect  of  a  closer  definition  of  the  main  idea.  We 
image  a  thing  more  clearly,  we  define  the  outlines  of  an 
idea  more  accurately,  when  it  is  contrasted  with  something 
else,  when  its  negative  or  its  contrary  is  stated. 

[Topic-statement]  The  peculiarity  of  ill-temper  is  that  it  is  the 
vice  of  the  virtuous.  [Repeated]  It  is  often  the  one  blot  on  an 
otherwise  noble  character.  [Particularized]  You  know  men  who 
are  all  but  perfect,  and  women  who  would  be  entirely  perfect, 


38  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

but  for  an  easily  ruffled,  quick-tempered  or  "  touchy  "  disposition. 
—  Druramond :  The  Greatest  Thing  in  the  World,  p.  29. 

[Topic-statement]  There  are  few  delights  in  any  life  so  high 
and  rare  as  the  subtle  and  strong  delight  of  sovereign  art  and 
poetry;  there  are  none  more  pure  and  more  sublime.  [Repeated 
and  particularized]  To  have  read  the  greatest  work  of  any  great 
poet,  to  have  beheld  or  heard  the  greatest  works  of  any  great 
painter  or  musician,  is  a  possession  added  to  the  best  things  of 
life.  —  Swinburne:  Essays  and  Studies  (Victor  Hugo:  L'Anne'e 
Terrible). 

[Topic]  Practically,  then,  at  present,  "advancement  in  life" 
means,  becoming  conspicuous  in  life ;  obtaining  a  position  which 
shall  be  acknowledged  by  others  to  be  respectable  or  honorable. 
[Defined]  We  do  not  understand  by  this  advancement,  in  general, 
the  mere  making  of  money,  but  the  being  known  to  have  made  it ; 
not  the  accomplishment  of  any  great  aim,  but  the  being  seen  to 
have  accomplished  it.  In  a  word,  we  mean  the  gratification  of 
our  thirst  for  applause.  —  Ruskin :  Sesame  and  Lilies,  p.  5. 

[Topic  and  details]  We  all  know  how  beautiful  and  noble 
modesty  is;  how  we  all  admire  it;  how  it  raises  a  man  in  our 
eyes  to  see  him  afraid  of  boasting;  never  showing  off;  never 
pushing  himself  forward;  .  .  .  [Contrary]  Whenever,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  see  in  wise  and  good  men  any  vanity,  boasting, 
pompousness  of  any  kind,  we  call  it  a  weakness  in  them,  and  are 
sorry  to  see  them  lowering  themselves  by  the  least  want  of  divine 
modesty.  —  Kingsley :  Country  Sermons,  III. 

Such  contrasting  ideas  naturally  express  themselves  in 
antitheses  and  in  balanced  sentences.  These  produce  mo- 
notony and  weariness,  if  employed  often.  They  should  be 
used  sparingly,  and  their  form  of  presentation  varied. 

In  the  following  we  have  the  topic  treated  both  by  con- 
trast and  by  example :  — 

Mannerism  is  pardonable  and  is  sometimes  even  agreeable,  when 
the  manner,  though  vicious,  is  natural.  Few  readers,  for  example, 
would  be  willing  to  part  with  the  mannerism  of  Milton  or  of 
Burke.  But  a  mannerism  which  does  not  sit  easy  on  the  mannerist, 


DEVELOPING   THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.  39 

which  has  been  adopted  on  principle,  and  which  can  be  sustained 
only  by  constant  effort,  is  always  offensive.  And  such  is  the  man- 
nerism of  Johnson.  —  Macaulay :  Life  of  Johnson. 

21.  Development  by  Comparison  and  Illustration.  —  Some- 
times the  paragraph-idea,  as  embodied  in  the  topic-statement, 
or  as  implied  without  any  topic-statement,  finds  its  best 
development  through  a  comparison  or  a  concrete  illustration. 
The  illustration,  being  usually  of  considerable  length,  detains 
the  attention  of  the  reader  upon  the  thought  until  he  sees 
more  fully  all  that  it  means.  Comparisons  may  be  invented, 
as  the  parables  of  the  New  Testament,  or  they  may  be  real. 
Examples  of  the  employment  of  real  comparisons  are  given 
in  the  quotations  from  Huxley  and  Hamilton  below. 

[Topic]  The  vast  results  obtained  by  science  are  won  by  no 
mystical  faculties,  by  no  mental  processes,  other  than  those  which 
are  practised  by  every  one  of  us  in  the  humblest  and  meanest 
affairs  of  life.  [Real  comparisons]  A  detective  policeman  dis- 
covers a  burglar  from  the  marks  made  by  his  shoe,  by  a  mental 
process  identical  with  that  by  which  Cuvier  restored  the  extinct 
animals  of  Montmartre  from  fragments  of  their  bones.  Nor  does 
that  process  of  induction  and  deduction  by  which  a  lady,  finding  a 
stain  of  a  particular  kind  upon  her  dress,  concludes  that  somebody 
has  upset  the  inkstand  thereon,  differ  in  any  way  from  that  by 
which  Adams  and  Leverrier  discovered  a  new  planet.  [Topic  re- 
peated] The  man  of  science,  in  fact,  simply  uses  with  scrupulous 
exactness  the  methods  which  we  all  habitually  and  at  every  moment 
use  qarelessly.  —  Huxley :  Lay  Sermons,  p.  78. 

A  country  may  be  overrun  by  an  armed  host,  but  it  is  conquered 
only  by  the  establishment  of  fortresses.  Words  are  the  fortresses 
of  thought.  They  enable  us  to  realize  our  dominion  over  what  we 
have  already  overrun  in  thought ;  to  make  every  intellectual  con- 
quest the  basis  of  operations  for  others  still  beyond.  Or  another 
illustration :  You  have  all  heard  of  the  process  of  tunnelling,  of 
tunnelling  through  a  sand-bank.  In  this  operation  it  is  impossible 
to  succeed,  unless  every  foot,  nay  almost  every  inch  in  our  progress, 
be  secured  by  an  arch  of  masonry,  before  we  attempt  the  excava- 


40  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

tion  of  another.  Now,  language  is  to  the  mind  precisely  what  the 
arch  is  to  the  tunnel.  The  power  of  thinking  and  the  power  of 
excavation  are  not  dependent  on  the  word  in  one  case,  on  the 
mason-work  in  the  other :  but  without  these  subsidiaries,  neither 
process  could  be  carried  on  beyond  its  rudimentary  commencement. 
—  Hamilton :  Logic,  II.,  Lecture  8. 

22.  Development  by  Specific  Instances  or  Examples.  - 
Sometimes  the  topic-statement  asserts  a  general  fact  which 
can  be  made  clear  only  by  citing  specific  instances  or  exam- 
ples of  the  fact.  A  topic-statement  like  the  following, 
"  The  parts  and  signs  of  goodness  are  many,"  clearly  prom- 
ises either  an  enumeration  of  these  parts  and  signs  (particu- 
lars and  details)  or  a  number  of  specific  instances  that  will 
show  what  these  "  parts  and  signs  "  are.  Bacon,  in  the  first 
quotation  given  below,  has  chosen  to  give  a  number  of  spe- 
cific instances.  In  the  second  quotation,  from  Thoreau, 
although  names  and  dates  are  suppressed,  the  numerous 
instances  cited  are  none  the  less  specific. 

[Topic]  The  parts  and  signs  of  goodness  are  many.  [Specific 
instances]  If  a  man  be  gracious  and  courteous  to  strangers,  it 
shows  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  world,  and  that  his  heart  is  no 
island  cut  off  from  other  lands,  but  a  continent  that  joins  to  them. 
If  he  be  compassionate  towards  the  afflictions  of  others,  it  shows 
that  his  heart  is  like  the  noble  tree  that  is  wounded  itself  when  it 
gives  the  balm.  If  he  easily  pardons  and  remits  offences,  it  shows 
that  his  mind  is  planted  above  injuries,  so  that  he  cannot  be  shot. 
If  he  be  thankful  for  small  benefits,  it  shows  that  he  weighs  men's 
minds,  and  not  their  trash.  But,  above  all,  if  he  have  St.  Paul's 
perfection,  that  he  would  wish  to  be  anathema  from  Christ  for  the 
salvation  of  his  brethren,  it  shows  much  of  a  divine  nature,  and  a 
kind  of  conformity  with  Christ  himself.  —  Bacon  :  Of  Goodness. 

[Topic]  It  is  darker  in  the  woods,  even  in  common  nights,  than 
most  suppose.  [Specific  instance]  I  frequently  had  to  look  up 
at  the  opening  between  the  trees  above  the  path  in  order  to  learn 
my  route,  and,  where  there  was  no  cart-path,  to  feel  with  my  feet 
the  faint  track  which  I  had  worn,  or  steer  by  the  known  relation 


DEVELOPING    THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.  41 

of  particular  trees  which  I  felt  with  my  hands,  passing  between 
two  pines,  for  instance,  not  more  than  eighteen  inches  apart,  in 
the  midst  of  the  woods,  invariably  in  the  darkest  night.  [Other 
instances]  Sometimes,  after  coming  home  thus  late  in  a  dark  and 
muggy  night,  when  my  feet  felt  the  path  which  my  eyes  could  not 
see,  dreaming  and  absent-minded  all  the  way,  until  I  was  aroused 
by  having  to  raise  my  hand  to  lift  the  latch,  I  have  not  been  able  to 
recall  a  single  step  of  my  walk,  and  I  have  thought  that  perhaps  my 
body  would  find  its  way  home  if  its  master  should  forsake  it,  as 
the  hand  finds  its  way  to  the  mouth  without  assistance.  [Other 
instances]  Several  times,  when  a  visitor  chanced  to  stay  into 
evening,  and  it  proved  a  dark  night,  I  was  obliged  to  conduct  him 
to  the  cart-path  in  the  rear  of  the  house,  and  then  point  out  to  him 
the  direction  he  was  to  pursue,  and  in  keeping  which  he  was  to  be 
guided  rather  by  his  feet  than  his  eyes.  [Another  instance]  One 
very  dark  night  I  directed  thus  on  their  way  two  young  men  who 
had  been  fishing  in  the  pond.  They  lived  about  a  mile  off  through 
the  woods,  and  were  quite  used  to  the  route.  A  day  or  two  after 
one  of  them  told  me  that  they  wandered  about  the  greater  part  of 
the  night,  close  by  their  own  premises,  and  did  not  get  home  till 
toward  morning,  by  which  time,  as  there  had  been  several  heavy 
showers  in  the  meanwhile,  and  the  leaves  were  very  wet,  they  were 
drenched  to  their  skins.  [Other  instances]  I  have  heard  of  many 
going  astray  even  in  the  village  streets,  when  the  darkness  was  so 
thick  that  you  could  cut  it  with  a  knife,  as  the  saying  is.  Some 
who  live  in  the  outskirts,  having  come  to  town  a-shopping  in  their 
wagons,  have  been  obliged  to  put  up  for  the  night ;  and  ladies  and 
gentlemen  making  a  call,  have  gone  half-a-mile  out  of  their  way, 
feeling  the  side-walk  only  with  their  feet,  and  not  knowing  when 
they  turned.  It  is  a  surprising  and  memorable,  as  well  as  valuable 
experience,  to  be  lost  in  the  woods  at  any  time.  Often  in  a  snow- 
storm, even  by  day,  one  will  come  out  upon  a  well-known  road 
and  yet  find  it  impossible  to  tell  which  way  leads  to  the  village. 
Though  he  knows  that  he  has  travelled  it  a  thousand  times,  he 
cannot  recognize  a  feature  in  it,  but  it  is  as  strange  to  him  as  if 
it  were  a  road  in  Siberia.  By  night,  of  course,  the  perplexity  is 
infinitely  greater.  In  our  most  trivial  walks  we  are  constantly, 
though  unconsciously,  steering  like  pilots  by  certain  well-known 
beacons  and  headlands,  and  if  we  go  beyond  our  usual  course  we 


42  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

still  carry  in  our  minds  the  bearing  of  some  neighboring  cape; 
and  not  till  we  are  completely  lost,  or  turned  round,  —  for  a  man 
needs  only  to  be  turned  round  once  with  his  eyes  shut  in  this  world 
to  be  lost,  —  do  we  appreciate  the  vastness  and  strangeness  of 
Nature.  Every  man  has  to  learn  the  points  of  compass  again  as 
often  as  he  awakes,  whether  from  sleep  or  any  abstraction.  Not 
till  we  are  lost  —  in  other  words,  not  till  we  have  lost  the  world  — 
do  we  begin  to  find  ourselves,  and  realize  where  we  are,  and  the 
infinite  extent  of  our  relations.  —  Thoreau :  Walden,  The  Village. 

23.  Development  by  Presenting  Reasons.  —  Some  topic- 
statements  call  for  reasons  other  than  specific  instances  or 
in  addition  to  one  or  more  specific  instances.  On  reading  a 
topic-statement  the  question  "  Why  ?  "  may  at  once  arise  in 
the  mind  and  demand  a  reason.  A  topic-statement  which 
contains  an  affirmation  that  is  likely  to  raise  a  doubt  should 
always  be  supported  by  reasons.  If,  for  example,  one  reads 
that  "  Truly  fine  prose  is  more  rare  than  truly  fine  poetry," 
one  demands  a  reason  at  once  for  a  statement  which  at 
first  thought  is  so  surprising. 

[Topic]  Although  fairly  good  prose  is  much  more  common  than 
fairly  good  verse,  yet  I  hold  that  truly  fine  prose  is  more  rare  than 
truly  fine  poetry.  I  trust  that  it  will  be  counted  neither  a  whim 
nor  a  paradox  if  I  give  it  as  a  reason  that  [Reason]  mastery  in 
prose  is  an  art  more  difficult  than  mastery  in  verse.  The  very 
freedom  of  prose,  its  want  of  conventions,  of  settled  prosody,  of 
musical  inspiration,  give  wider  scope  for  failure  and  afford  no 
beaten  paths.  Poetry  glides  swiftly  down  the  stream  of  a  flowing 
and  familiar  river,  where  the  banks  are  always  the  helmsman's 
guide.  Prose  puts  forth  its  lonely  skiff  upon  a  boundless  sea,  where 
a  multitude  of  strange  and  different  crafts  are  cutting  about  in 
contrary  directions.  At  any  rate,  the  higher  triumphs  of  prose 
come  later  and  come  to  fewer  than  do  the  great  triumphs  of  verse. 

—  F.  Harrison,  On  English  Prose. 

[Topic]  Any  one  who  has  taken  part  in  an  election,  be  it  the 
election  of  a  pope  by  cardinals,  of  a  town-clerk  by  the  city  council, 
of  a  fellow  by  the  dons  of  a  college,  of  a  schoolmaster  by  the  board 


DEVELOPING   THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.          43 

of  trustees,  of  a  pastor  by  a  congregation,  knows  how  much  de- 
pends on  generalship.  [Reasons]  In  every  body  of  electors  there 
are  men  who  have  no  minds  of  their  own ;  others  who  cannot  make 
up  their  minds  till  the  decisive  moment,  and  are  determined  by  the 
last  word  or  incident ;  others  whose  wavering  inclination  yields  to 
the  pressure  or  follows  the  example  of  a  stronger  colleague.  There 
are  therefore  chances  of  running  in  by  surprise  an  aspirant  whom 
few  may  have  desired,  but  still  fewer  have  positively  disliked, 
chances  specially  valuable  when  controversy  has  spent  itself  between 
two  equally  matched  competitors,  so  that  the  majority  are  ready  to 
jump  at  a  new  suggestion.  The  wary  tactician  awaits  his  oppor- 
tunity; he  improves  the  brightening  prospects  of  his  aspirant  to 
carry  him  with  a  run  before  the  opposition  is  ready  with  a  counter 
move ;  or  if  he  sees  a  strong  antagonist,  he  invents  pretexts  for 
delay  till  he  has  arranged  a  combination  by  which  that  antagonist 
may  be  foiled.  Sometimes  he  will  put  forward  an  aspirant  destined 
to  be  abandoned,  and  reserve  till  several  votings  have  been  taken 
the  man  with  whom  he  means  to  win.  All  these  arts  are  familiar 
to  the  convention  manager,  whose  power  is  seen  not  merely  in  the 
dealing  with  so  large  a  number  of  individuals  and  groups  whose 
dispositions  he  must  grasp  and  remember,  but  in  the  cool  prompti- 
tude with  which  he  decides  on  his  course  amid  the  noise  and  passion 
and  distractions  of  twelve  thousand  shouting  spectators.  [Real 
comparison]  Scarcely  greater  are  the  faculties  of  combination  and 
coolness  of  head  needed  by  a  general  in  the  midst  of  a  battle,  who 
has  to  bear  in  mind  the  position  of  every  one  of  his  own  corps  and 
to  divine  the  positions  of  those  of  the  enemy's  corps  which  remain 
concealed,  who  must  vary  his  plan  from  hour  to  hour  according  to 
the  success  or  failure  of  each  of  his  movements  and  the  new  facts 
that  are  successively  disclosed,  and  who  does  all  this  under  the 
roar  and  through  the  smoke  of  cannon.  —  Bryce:  The  American 
Commonwealth,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  198. 

[Topic]  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  determine  the  cost  of 
ditches  and  canals.  [Reason  I]  Some  companies  hesitate  to  dis- 
close the  cost  of  their  works ;  some  decline  to  do  so,  and  others  do 
not  know.  [Reason  II]  The  numerous  items  of  expense  involved 
in  the  construction  and  operations  of  a  large  irrigating  canal  dur- 
ing the  first  ten  years  of  its  life  cannot  always  be  classified.  These 


44  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

works  are  not  built  with  the  same  preliminary  care  and  expense 
as  the  irrigating  canals  of  Europe.  There  is  usually  a  rush  to 
get  water  on  a  portion  of  the  land  to  be  irrigated.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  ditch  should  be  completed  to  its  utmost  capacity. 
Top  planks  may  be  left  off  flumes;  waste  ways  may  be  left  for 
construction  in  future  years;  headgates  may  be  of  temporary 
construction,  to  be  made  permanent  later.  Often  construction 
expense  runs  into  operating  expense,  until  it  is  hard  to  separate 
the  two  items.  —  Mead :  Irrigation  Institutions. 

24.  Development  by  Applying  a  Principle.  —  Frequently 
a  topic-statement  lays  down  a  principle  the  truth  of  which 
is  assumed ;  the  application  of  the  principle  to  some  par- 
ticular case  usually  follows  at  once.  Sentences  enforcing 
the  application  and  emphasizing  it  in  various  ways  are  also 
introduced.  The  following  will  illustrate  the  statement  of 
a  principle  and  its  application :  — 

[Principle]  People  who  cannot  spend  ten  millions  to  the  best 
advantage  are  just  as  incapable  of  the  economical  and  business-like 
disbursement  of  nine.  [Application]  It  is  an  easy  and  a  showy 
thing  for  a  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  to  say  bluntly  that  he 
will  reduce  the  Estimates  by  so  much,  and  the  departments  must 
do  what  they  can  with  what  remains.  But  that  procedure  no 
more  solves  the  economical  problem  than  [Illustration]  the  well- 
known  methods  of  Procrustes  altered  the  real  stature  of  his  vic- 
tims.—  London  Times. 

[Statement  of  principle]  The  general  principle  of  right  arrange- 
ment in  sentences,  which  we  have  traced  in  its  application  to  the 
leading  divisions  of  them,  equally  determines  the  proper  order  of 
their  minor  divisions.  [Application  to  particulars]  In  every 
sentence  of  any  complexity  the  complement  to  the  subject  contains 
several  clauses,  and  that  to  the  predicate  several  others  ;  and  these 
may  be  arranged  in  greater  or  less  conformity  to  the  law  of  easy 
apprehension.  Of  course  with  these,  as  with  the  larger  members, 
the  succession  should  be  from  the  less  specific  to  the  more  specific  — 
from  the  abstract  to  the  concrete.  —  Spencer:  Philosophy  of  Style. 


DEVELOPING   THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.  45 

25.  Development  by  Stating  Causes  and  Effects.  —  The 
paragraph-theme  may  sometimes  be  best  developed  by  a 
statement  of  causes  and  effects  or  results.  In  the  first 
quotation  below  the  procedure  is  from  the  discovery  of  the 
properties  of  the  Western  grass,  as  cause,  to  the  results  or 
effects  of  that  discovery.  In  the  second  selection  (from 
Bryce)  we  have  a  long  paragraph  that,  save  for  the  use  of 
three  examples  at  the  close,  is  almost  entirely  developed 
by  the  statement  of  causes  and  effects. 

[Topic]  The  greatest  product  of  Western  America  is  grass. 
[Concession]  Although  its  growth  is  stunted,  [Cause]  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly nutritious,  and  the  dry  air  and  absence  of  dews  and 
rains,  which  cause  it  to  cure  naturally  on  its  stem,  make  it  possible 
for  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  to  live  on  it  in  winter  as  well  as  in 
summer.  [Effects]  When  this  discovery  was  made,  the  Great 
American  Desert  ceased  to  exist,  and  what  is  known  as  the  range 
industry  was  born.  From  the  Gulf  to  Canada,  and  from  western 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  to  the  Sierras,  the  cattle  round-up  and 
the  mess  wagon  followed  close  on  the  disappearing  Indian  and 
buffalo.  —  Mead:  Irrigation  Institutions. 

[Contrary]  The  difference,  therefore,  between  despotically  gov- 
erned and  free  countries  does  not  consist  in  the  fact  that  the  latter 
are  ruled  by  opinion  and  the  former  by  force,  for  both  are  gener- 
ally ruled  by  opinion.  [Topic]  It  consists  rather  in  this,  that  in 
the  former  the  people  instinctively  obey  a  power  which  they  do 
not  know  to  be  really  of  their  own  creation,  and  to  stand  by  their 
own  permission;  whereas  iu  the  latter  the  people  feel  their  su- 
premacy, and  consciously  treat  their  rulers  as  their  agents,  while 
the  rulers  obey  a  power  which  they  admit  to  have  made  and  to  be 
able  to  unmake  them,  —  the  popular  will.  [Effect]  In  both  cases 
force  is  seldom  necessary,  or  is  needed  only  against  small  groups, 
[Cause]  because  the  habit  of  obedience  replaces  it.  Conflicts  and 
revolutions  belong  to  the  intermediate  stage,  when  the  people  are 
awakening  to  the  sense  that  they  are  truly  the  supreme  power  in 
the  State,  but  when  the  rulers  have  not  yet  become  aware  that 
their  authority  is  merely  delegated.  [Causes]  When  superstition 
and  the  habit  of  submission  have  vanished  from  the  whilom  sub- 


46  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

jects,  when  the  rulers,  recognizing  that  they  are  no  more  than 
agents  for  the  citizens,  have  in  turn  formed  the  habit  of  obedi- 
ence, [Effect]  public  opinion  has  become  the  active  and  control- 
ling director  of  a  business  in  which  it  was  before  the  sleeping  and 
generally  forgotten  partner.  [Concession]  But  even  when  this 
stage  has  been  reached,  as  has  now  happened  in  most  civilized 
States,  there  are  differences  in  the  degree  and  mode  in  and  by 
which  public  opinion  asserts  itself.  [Cause]  In  some  countries 
the  habit  of  obeying  rulers  and  officials  is  so  strong  that  [Effect] 
the  people,  once  they  have  chosen  the  legislature  or  executive 
head  by  whom  the  officials  are  appointed,  allow  these  officials 
almost  as  wide  a  range  of  authority  as  in  the  old  days  of  despo- 
tism. [Effects]  Such  people  have  a  profound  respect  for  govern- 
ment as  government,  and  a  reluctance,  [Causes]  due  either  to 
theory  or  to  mere  laziness,  perhaps  to  both,  to  interfere  with  its 
action.  They  say,  "  That  is  a  matter  for  the  Administration ;  we 
have  nothing  to  do  with  it";  and  stand  as  much  aside  or  submit 
as  humbly  as  if  the  government  did  not  spring  from  their  own 
will.  [Example]  Perhaps  they  practically  leave  themselves,  like 
the  Germans,  in  the  hands  of  a  venerated  monarch  or  a  forceful 
minister,  giving  these  rulers  a  free  hand  so  long  as  their  policy 
moves  in  accord  with  the  general  sentiment  of  the  nation,  and 
maintains  its  glory.  [Example]  Perhaps  while  frequently  chang- 
ing their  ministries,  they  nevertheless  yield  to  each  ministry,  and 
to  its  executive  subordinates  all  over  the  country,  an  authority 
great  while  it  lasts,  and  largely  controlling  the  action  of  the  indi- 
vidual citizen.  This  seems  to  be  still  true  of  France.  [Example] 
There  are  other  countries  in  which,  though  the  sphere  of  govern- 
ment is  strictly  limited  by  law,  and  the  private  citizen  is  little 
inclined  to  bow  before  an  official,  the  habit  has  been  to  check  the 
ministry  chiefly  through  the  legislature,  and  to  review  the  conduct 
of  both  ministry  and  legislature  only  at  long  intervals,  when  an 
election  of  the  legislature  takes  place.  This  has  been,  and  to 
some  extent  is  still,  the  case  in  Britain.  Although  the  people 
rule,  they  rule  not  directly,  but  through  the  House  of  Commons, 
which  they  choose  only  once  in  four,  five,  or  six  years,  and  which 
may,  at  any  given  moment,  represent  rather  the  past  than  the 
present  will  of  the  nation.  —  Bryce:  The  American  Commonwealth, 
3d  ed.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  257. 


DEVELOPING   THE  PARAGRAPH-THEME.          47 

26.  Introductory,  Transitional,  and  Summarizing  Sen- 
tences.—  Besides  the  sentences  which,  in  the  development 
of  a  paragraph,  perform  one  or  more  of  the  functions  men- 
tioned under  the  preceding  headings,  there  are  in  some 
paragraphs  other  sentences  whose  main  business  is  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  topic-statement,  to  act  as  a  bridge  be- 
tween different  parts  of  the  paragraph,  or  to  summarize  the 
sentences  of  one  part  before  the  next  part  is  taken  up. 

A  whole  sentence  may  be  devoted  to  introducing  the 
topic  of  the  paragraph ;  but,  more  often,  a  short  clause  pre- 
fixed to  the  topic-statement  will  be  sufficient;  and  in  most 
paragraphs  no  introduction  is  needed.  When  the  introduc- 
tion takes  the  form  of  a  clause,  this  clause  is  frequently  in 
direct  contrast  to  what  is  to  be  the  main  idea  of  the  para- 
graph. The  following  will  illustrate :  — 

[Introductory  contrast]  I  will  not  ask  your  pardon  for  endeavor- 
ing to  interest  you  in  the  subject  of  Greek  Mythology;  [Subject 
indicated]  but  I  must  ask  your  permission  to  approach  it  in  a  tem- 
per differing  from  that  in  which  it  is  frequently  treated.  —  Ruskin. 
[The  whole  quotation  is  given  in  §  16.] 

[Introduction]  The  administration  has  erred  in  the  steps  to 
restore  peace ;  but  its  error  has  not  been  in  doing  too  little,  but 
[Topic]  in  betraying  too  great  a  solicitude  for  that  event.  [The 
paragraph  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  administration's 
"  solicitude  "  for  peace.]  —  Henry  Clay :  Speech  on  the  War  of  1812. 

The  effect  of  an  introductory  sentence  is  of  ten  to  postpone 
the  topic-statement  to  a  later  stage  of  the  paragraph.  This 
is  seen  in  the  following :  — 

[Introductory]  The  statement  is  made  from  time  to  time  that 
we  are  admitting  great  masses  of  socialists.  The  number  is  exag- 
gerated, and  more  importance  is  attached  to  the  utterances  of  these 
than  they  deserve.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  some  of 
them  know  just  enough  to  be  dangerous.  [Indicating  what  the 
subject  is  to  be]  But  they  are  permitted  to  go  among  their  fellows 
to  inoculate  them  with  whatever  doctrines  they  choose,  and  there 


48  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

is  nothing  to  oppose  them.  Nobody  has  furnished  their  hearers 
with  arguments,  or  taken  steps  to  teach  them  that  in  America, 
where  conditions  are  fairly  equal,  no  necessity  exists  for  the  violent 
agitation  of  these  questions.  [Topic]  But  train  bright  young 
men  among  these  immigrants  to  know  what  their  duties  are,  teach 
them  their  rights,  put  at  their  disposal  arguments  with  which  to 
meet  the  specious  assertions  of  self-styled  and  talkative  leaders, 
and  the  much-vaunted  dangers  of  socialism  would  disappear. — 
Century. 

Short  summarizing  sentences  may  be  needed,  at  times,  to 
indicate  the  direction  which  the  thought  is  next  to  take,  or 
the  manner  of  treatment  to  be  pursued.  An  explanation  or 
a  reason,  of  considerable  length,  which  is  to  be  followed  by 
a  resumption  of  the  main  line  of  thought,  needs  such  a  sen- 
tence. The  following  paragraph  illustrates  this :  — 

A  constitutional  statesman  is  in  general  a  man  of  common 
opinions  and  uncommon  abilities.  The  reason  is  obvious.  [The 
next  twelve  sentences  state  the  reason  at  length,  and  the  paragraph 
concludes.]  The  most  influential  of  constitutional  statesmen  is  the 
one  who  most  felicitously  expresses  the  creed  of  the  moment.  \\h<> 
administers  it,  who  embodies  it  in  laws  and  institutions,  who  gives 
it  the  highest  life  it  is  capable  of,  who  induces  the  average  man  to 
think :  "  I  could  not  have  done  it  any  better,  if  I  had  had  time 
myself."  —  Bagehot:  Sir  Robert  Peel. 

In  the  following,  notice  how  the  short  summarizing  sen- 
tences (here  placed  in  italics)  perform  the  double  duty  of 
acting  as  transitions  and  of  furnishing  a  basis  for  the  longer 
sentences  made  up  of  details :  — 

Without  force  or  opposition,  it  [national  chivalry]  subdued  the 
fierceness  of  pride  and  power;  it  obliged  sovereigns  to  submit  to 
the  soft  collar  of  social  esteem,  compelled  stern  authority  to  sub- 
mit to  elegance,  and  gave  a  dominating  vanquisher  of  laws,  to  be 
subdued  by  manners. 

But  now  all  is  to  be  changed.  All  the  pleasing  illusions  which 
made  power  gentle,  and  obedience  liberal,  which  harmonized  the 
different  shades  of  life,  and  which,  by  a  bland  assimilation,  incor- 
porated into  politics  the  sentiments  which  beautify  and  soften 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE.  49 

private  society,  are  to  be  dissolved  by  this  new  conquering  empire  of 
light  and  reason.  All  the  decent  drapery  of  life  is  to  be  rudely  torn  off. 
All  the  superadded  ideas,  furnished  from  the  wardrobe  of  a  moral 
imagination,  which  the  heart  owns,  and  the  understanding  ratifies 
as  necessary  to  cover  the  defects  of  our  naked  shivering  nature,  and 
to  raise  it  to  dignity  in  our  own  estimation,  are  to  be  exploded  as 
a  ridiculous,  absurd,  and  antiquated  fashion.  — Burke:  Reflections 
on  the  Revolution  in  France. 

Such  expressions  as  "  The  main  point  is  this,"  "  After  all, 
the  fact  remains,"  etc.,  are  useful  in  a  long  paragraph  for 
summarizing  what  has  gone  before,  and  for  indicating  the 
relative  importance  of  the  different  ideas  which  make  up 
the  paragraph.  The  following  contains  two  expressions  of 
the  kind,  the  first  subordinating,  the  second  giving  promi- 
nence :  — 

As  a  single  man,  I  have  spent  a  good  deal  of  my  time  in  noting 
down  the  infirmities  of  married  people  to  console  myself  for  those 
superior  pleasures,  which  they  tell  me  I  have  lost  by  remaining  as 
I  am.  I  cannot  say  that  the  quarrels  of  men  and  their  wives  ever 
made  any  great  impression  on  me.  .  .  .  Whatoftenest  offends  me 
at  the  houses  of  married  persons  where  I  visit,  is  an  error  of  quite 
a  different  description  ;  it  is  that  they  are  too  loving.  Not  too 
loving  neither:  that  does  not  explain  my  meaning.  Besides,  why 
should  that  offend  me?  The  very  act  of  separating  themselves 
from  the  rest  of  the  world,  to  have  the  fuller  enjoyment  of  each 
other's  society,  implies  that  they  prefer  one  another  to  all  the 
world.  But  what  I  complain  of  is,  that  they  carry  this  preference  so 
undisguised ly,  they  perk  it  up  in  the  faces  of  us  single  people  so 
shamelessly,  you  cannot  be  in  their  company  a  moment  without 
being  made  to  feel,  by  some  indirect  hint  or  open  avowal,  that  you 
are  not  the  object  of  this  preference.  —  Charles  Lamb:  Essays  of 
Elia,  A  Bachelor's  Complaint. 

EFFECT  ON  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE. 

27.  The  methods  of  development,  treated  and  illustrated 
in  the  preceding  pages,  must  have  suggested  to  the  student 


50  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

that  the  requirements  of  any  paragraph  modify  considera- 
bly the  forms  of  the  sentences  composing  it.  The  whole 
paragraph  being  the  unit  of  thought,  it  follows  that  the  sen- 
tences are  influenced,  both  as  to  their  structure  and  as  to  their 
position,  by  the  demands  of  the  main  idea  or  theme  of  the  para- 
graph. It  is  the  theme  that  reduces  some  sentences,  which 
would  otherwise  stand  independent,  to  subordinate  posi- 
tions ;  that  compels  the  employment  of  connecting  words ; 
that  determines  whether  or  not  a  certain  word  shall  be  put 
out  of  the  usual  order  which  it  would  occupy  in  an  indepen- 
dent sentence ;  and  that  decides  what  words,  phrases,  clauses, 
or  sentences  must  be  given  the  most  emphatic  positions. 
Even  questions  of  punctuation  assume,  many  times,  unusual 
importance  for  the  paragraph-writer.  The  unity  of  a  para- 
graph may  be  destroyed  by  carelessness  in  punctuation. 
We  shall  examine  in  the  following  pages  some  of  the  most 
important  of  the  modifications  which  the  paragraph  imposes 
upon  the  usual  forms  of  sentences. 

28.  Inversion.  —  The  most  obvious  of  the  modifications 
which  the  paragraph  may  impose  upon  one  of  its  sentences 
is  inversion.  Any  sentence  which,  if  stated  in  its  usual 
order,  would  tend  to  obscure  the  main  idea  or  would  seem 
for  the  moment  to  introduce  a  new  topic,  may  have  its  parts 
rearranged  for  the  sake  of  preserving  the  unity  and  sequence 
of  the  paragraph.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  following :  — 

For  choice  and  pith  of  language  he  [Emerson]  belongs  to  a 
better  age  than  ours,  and  might  rub  shoulders  with  Fuller  and 
Browne  —  though  he  does  use  that  abominable  word  reliable.  His 
eye  for  a  fine,  telling  phrase  that  will  carry  true  is  like  that  of  a 
backwoodsman  for  a  rifle;  and  he  will  dredge  you  up  a  choice 
word  from  the  mud  of  Cotton  Mather  himself.  A  diction  at  once 
go  rich  and  so  homely  as  his  I  know  not  where  to  match  in  these 
days  of  writing  by  the  page;  it  is  like  homespun  cloth-of-gold. 

—  Lowell :  My  Study  Windows. 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE.  51 

In  this  paragraph,  the  topic,  "Emerson's  choice  of  lan- 
guage," announced  in  the  first  sentence,  occurs  again  near 
the  close  of  the  second.  The  inversion  in  the  third  sentence 
is  solely  determined  by  the  need  of  keeping  the  topic  promi- 
nent. It  brings  together,  in  close  juncture,  the  two  things 
that  are  alike  in  the  last  two  sentences,  the  words  choice 
word  and  a  diction,  etc.  This  adjustment  of  the  begin- 
ning of  one  sentence  to  the  end  of  the  preceding  sentence, 
bringing  similar  ideas  close  together,  is  happily  called  "  the 
echo."  The  echo  is  of  great  help  to  a  good  sequence  and  to 
proper  emphasis.  One  who  uses  the  echo  systematically  will 
not  wander  far  from  his  subject  without  discovering  that 
unpleasant  fact.  In  the  following,  it  is  the  expression  "  to 
do  so"  which  required  the  inversion  so  that  "to  do  so"  might 
be  brought  as  close  as  possible  to  the  words,  "  to  repudiate," 
and  "  to  disclaim." 

It  is  among  the  most  memorable  facts  of  Grecian  history  that  — 
in  spite  of  the  victory  of  Philip  of  Chaeroneia  — .  .  .  the  Athenian 
people  could  never  be  persuaded  either  to  repudiate  Demosthenes, 
or  to  disclaim  sympathy  with  his  political  policy.  [Inversion] 
How  much  art  and  ability  were  employed  to  induce  them  to  do  so,  by  his 
numerous  enemies^  the  speech  of^Eschines  is  enough  to  teach  us. 

—  Grote :  History  of  Greece. 

29.  Parallel  Construction.  —  The  main  idea  sometimes  de- 
mands for  itself  the  same  place  in  all  of  a  series  of  sen- 
tences, in  order  to  insure  prominence  by  repetition  and  by 
similarity  of  form  and  position.  This  gives  rise  to  the 
balancing  of  one  part  of  a  sentence  against  another.  Bal- 
anced structure  is  sometimes  extended  to  clauses,  phrases, 
and  even  to  single  words.  Paragraph  requirements  will 
not  often  dictate  this  structure ;  some  writers  employ  it  too 
frequently.  When  whole  sentences  have  this  similarity 
of  form,  the  result  is  what  is  known  as  parallel  construc- 
tion. The  following  will  illustrate  all  these  varieties  of 
balance :  — 


52  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Certainly,  gentlemen,  it  ought  to  be  the  happiness  and  glory  of 
a  representative  to  live  in  the  strictest  union,  the  closest  corre- 
spondence, and  the  most  unreserved  communication  with  his  con- 
stituents. .  Their  wishes  ought  to  have  great  weight  with  him ; 
their  opinions  high  respect ;  their  business  unremitted  attention. 
It  is  his  duty  to  sacrifice  his  repose,  his  pleasure,  his  satisfactions, 
to  theirs,  —  and,  above  all,  ever,  and  in  all  cases,  to  prefer  their 
interest  to  his  own.  But  his  unbiassed  opinion,  his  mature  judg- 
ment, his  enlightened  conscience,  he  ought  not  to  sacrifice  to  you, 
to  any  man,  or  to  any  set  of  men  living.  These  he  does  not  derive 
from  your  pleasure,  —  no,  nor  from  the  law  and  the  Constitution. 
They  are  a  trust  from  Providence,  for  the  abuse  of  which  he  is 
deeply  answerable.  Your  representative  owes  you,  not  his  indus- 
try only,  but  his  judgment;  and  he  betrays,  instead  of  serving 
you,  if  he  sacrifices  it  to  your  opinion.  My  worthy  colleague  says, 
his  will  ought  to  be  subservient  to  yours.  If  that  be  all,  the  thing 
is  innocent.  If  government  were  a  matter  of  will  on  any  side, 
yours,  without  question,  ought  to  be  superior.  But  government 
and  legislation  are  matters  of  reason  and  judgment  and  not  of 
inclination ;  and  what  sort  of  reason  is  that  in  which  the  deter- 
mination precedes  the  discussion,  in  which  one  set  of  men  deliber- 
ate and  another  decide,  and  where  those  who  form  the  conclusion 
are  perhaps  three  hundred  miles  from  those  who  hear  the  argu- 
ments? To  deliver  an  opinion  is  the  right  of  all  men ;  that  of 
constituents  is  a  weighty  and  respectable  opinion,  which  a  repre- 
sentative ought  always  to  rejoice  to  hear,  and  which  he  ought 
always  most  seriously  to  consider.  But  authoritative  instructions, 
mandates  issued,  which  the  member  is  bound  blindly  and  implicitly 
to  obey,  to  vote,  and  to  argue  for,  though  contrary  to  the  clearest 
conviction  of  his  judgment  and  conscience,  —  these  are  things 
utterly  unknown  to  the  laws  of  this  land,  and  which  arise  from  a 
fundamental  mistake  of  the  whole  order  and  tenor  of  our  Consti- 
tution. —  Burke :  Obedience  to  Instructions. 

In  the  foregoing  quotation,  note  that  the  details  in  the 
first  five  sentences  are  stated  by  threes;  that  the  balanced 
structure  is  extended  even  to  the  adjectives  and  the  adver- 
bial expressions ;  that  the  details  of  one  sentence,  while  cor- 
responding in  number  and  form  to  those  of  another,  are  in 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE.  53 

the  order  of  climax ;  that  the  inversion  in  sentence  four  is 
made  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  details  of  that  sen- 
tence as  close  as  possible  to  the  details  with  which  they  are 
in  contrast  in  the  third  sentence.  Note  that  beginning 
with  the  seventh  sentence,  the  details  occur  by  twos ;  that 
the  ninth  sentence  is  a  short  summary  furnishing  the  basis 
for  the  sentences  that  follow;  that  the  repetition  in  the 
thirteenth  sentence  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  con- 
trasting details  in  juxtaposition. 

30.  Repetition.  —  It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  topic- 
statement  is  sometimes  repeated  while  the  paragraph  is  de- 
veloping. The  theme  of  the  paragraph  will  reappear  in 
various  forms  of  expression  at  important  points.  These 
forms  may  repeat  the  whole  topic-statement,  or  only  its  sig- 
nificant words;  may  repeat  literally,  or  by  means  of  equiva- 
lent synonymous  expressions.  More  often,  the  theme  is 
kept  prominent  by  the  use  of  pronouns  and  demonstrative 
expressions.  The  following  will  illustrate  :  — 

[Topic]  The  great  thing  for  us  is  to  feel  and  enjoy  his  [the  true 
poet's]  work  as  deeply  as  ever  we  can,  and  to  appreciate  the  wide 
difference  between  it  and  all  work  which  has  not  the  same  high 
character.  This  is  what  is  salutary ;  this  is  what  is  formative ;  this 
is  the  great  benefit  to  be  got  from  the  study  of  poetry.  Everything 
which  interferes  with  it,  which  hinders  it,  is  injurious.  True,  we 
must  read  our  classic  with  open  eyes,  and  not  with  eyes  blinded  with 
superstition  ;  we  must  perceive  when  his  work  comes  short,  when  it 
drops  out  of  the  class  of  the  very  best,  and  we  must  rate  it  in  such 
cases,  at  its  proper  value.  But  the  use  of  this  negative  criticism  is 
not  in  itself,  it  is  entirely  in  its  enabling  us  to  have  a  clearer  sense 
and  a  deeper  enjoyment  of  what  is  truly  excellent.  To  trace  the 
labor,  the  attempts,  the  weaknesses,  the  failures  of  a  genuine  classic, 
to  acquaint  oneself  with  his  time  and  his  life  and  his  historical  re- 
lationships, is  mere  literary  dilettantism  unless  it  has  that  clear 
sense  and  deeper  enjoyment  for  its  end.  —  Arnold  :  Introduction  to 
Ward's  English  Poets. 


54  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Notice  also  that  in  the  example  just  quoted  there  is  another 
set  of  references  to  carry  the  thought  back  to  the  words, 
'his  [the  true  poet's]  work/ 

The  need  of  closely  watching  the  pronouns  and  demonstrative 
words,  while  a  paragraph  is  being  written,  cannot  be  emphasized 
too  much.  When  a  word  is  employed  to  point  back  to  some 
other  word  or  statement  that  precedes,  the  writer  should 
make  sure  that  the  reference  is  clear  and  explicit.  The 
little  word  it  requires  especial  attention  and  care,  in  order 
to  avoid  ambiguity.  When  used  retrospectively,  the  word 
it  should  be  employed  to  refer  to  but  one  thing  in  the  same 
paragraph. 

Other  words  useful  at  times  for  keeping  the  theme  promi- 
nent and  for  pointing  back  to  something  already  said  are, 
this,  that,  these,  those,  the  former,  the  latter,  he,  she,  it,  here, 
there,  hence,  whence,  hither,  thither,  thence,  now,  then.  They 
are  called  words  of  retrospective  reference.  The  expressions, 
it  is,  there  are,Jtrst,  secondly,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  to  point 
forward  to  something  that  is  to  follow  and  are  called  words 
of  prospective  reference. 

31.  Subordination.  —  In  maintaining  its  prominence  in  a 
paragraph  the  theme  requires  the  subordination  of  all  sub- 
sidiary and  modifying  statements.  This  subordination  need 
not  be  indicated  always  by  an  introductory  word ;  for  fre- 
quently the  thought  itself  is  obviously  subordinate.  It  is 
not  often  necessary,  for  instance,  to  introduce  a  proof  by  the 
word  because  or  for;  the  hearer  can  generally  supply  these 
words  for  himself.  Still  there  are  many  cases  in  which 
the  thought  requires  that  the  subordination  be  plainly  in- 
dicated. Concessions  leading  up  to  a  contrast  usually  re- 
quire an  introductory  expression,  such  as,  it  is  true,  to  be  sure, 
looking  forward  to  a  sentence  beginning  with  still,  but,  yet,  or 
however.  Conditions  usually  need  an  introductory  if,  unless. 
Degrees  of  subordination  in  thought  are  indicated  by  such 


SENTENCE  STRUCTURE.  55 

words  as  at  least,  probably,  possibly,  and  perhaps,  —  which 
require  skilful  placing.  The  longer  expressions  used  for 
subordination  have  been  mentioned  under  Means  of  De- 
veloping the  Topic-Statement  (§§  18-25). 

Such  words  as  also,  likewise,  too,  further,  therefore,  conse- 
quently, etc.,  may  sometimes  be  needed  for  showing  the 
exact  relation  between  the  sentences  which  they  introduce 
and  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph,  and  for  making  the 
connection  from  sentence  to  sentence.  It  is  quite  easy  to 
use  them  in  too  great  profusion.  Far  better  than  burdening 
a  paragraph  with  such  words  is  the  practice  of  making  each 
sentence  the  obvious  outgrowth  of  the  sentence  that  precedes 
and  the  obvious  preparation  for  the  sentence  that  follows. 

The  paragraph  quoted  below  shows  a  considerable  number 
of  these  words  of  reference,  here  printed  in  italics :  — 

Finally,  it  is  urged  that  the  small  number  of  editions  through 
which  Shakespeare  passed  in  the  seventeenth  century,  furnishes  a 
separate  argument,  and  a  conclusive  one,  against  his  popularity. 
We  answer,  that  considering  the  bulk  of  his  plays  collectively,  the 
editions  were  not  few ;  compared  with  any  known  case,  the  copies 
sold  of  Shakespeare  were  quite  as  many  as  could  be  expected  under 
the  circumstances.  .  .  .  The  truth  is,  we  have  not  facts  enough 
to  guide  us;  for  the  number  of  editions  often  tells  nothing  accu- 
rately as  to  the  number  of  copies.  With  respect  to  Shakespeare, 
it  is  certain  that,  had  his  masterpieces  been  gathered  into  small  vol- 
umes, Shakespeare  would  have  had  a  most  extensive  sale.  As  it 
was,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  from  his  own  generation,  throughout 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  until  the  eighteenth  began  to  accom- 
modate, not  any  greater  popularity  in  him,  but  a  greater  taste  for 
reading  in  the  public,  his  fame  never  ceased  to  be  viewed  as  a 
national  trophy  of  honor.  ...  It  is  therefore  a  false  notion 
that  the  general  sympathy  with  the  merits  of  Shakespeare  ever 
beat  with  a  languid  or  intermitting  pulse.  Undoubtedly,  in  times 
when  the  functions  of  critical  journals  and  of  newspapers  were  not 
at  hand  to  diffuse  or  to  strengthen  the  impressions  which  emanated 
from  the  capital,  all  opinions  must  have  travelled  slowly  into  the 
provinces.  But  even  then,  whilst  the  perfect  organs  of  communication 


56  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

>rere  wanting,  indirect  substitutes  were  supplied  by  the  necessities 
of  the  times,  or  by  the  instincts  of  political  zeal.  Two  channels 
especially  lay  open  between  the  great  central  organ  of  the  national  mind 
and  the  remotest  provinces.  Parliaments  were  occasionally  sum- 
moned .  .  .  the  nobility  continually  resorted  to  the  court.  .  .  . 
Academic  persons  stationed  themselves  as  sentinels  at  London  for 
the  purpose  of  watching  the  court  and  the  course  of  public  affairs. 
These  persons  wrote  letters  .  .  .  and  thus  conducted  the  general 
feelings  at  the  centre  into  lesser  centres,  from  which  again  they  were 
diffused  into  the  ten  thousand  parishes  of  England.  ...  And 
by  this  mode  of  diffusion  it  is  that  we  can  explain  the  strength  with 
which  Shakespeare's  thoughts  and  diction  impressed  themselves 
from  a  very  early  period  upon  the  national  literature,  and  even  more 
generally  upon  the  national  thinking  and  conversation. 

—  De  Quincey :  Biography  of  Shakespeare. 

32.  Punctuation.  —  The  grammars  and  rhetorics,  which 
regard  the  sentence  as  the  unit  of  discourse,  give  rules  for 
punctuation  applying  mainly  to  the  proper  pointing  of  the 
various  parts  of  a  sentence.  See  Appendix  E.  Considering 
the  paragraph,  however,  as  the  true  unit  of  discourse,  we 
are  met  by  questions  of  punctuation  which  the  rules  usually 
given  do  not  answer.  The  rule  tells  us  to  put  a  period  at 
the  close  of  every  declarative  sentence;  but  the  important 
question  for  the  paragraph-writer  often  is,  What  is  the 
proper  place  at  which  to  bring  the  sentence  to  a  close  ?  In 
the  paragraph,  not  every  statement  is  followed  by  a  full 
stop.  Statements  which  standing  alone  would  properly  be 
independent  sentences,  are  frequently  united  into  one  sen- 
tence, separated  by  semicolons  or  colons,  when  they  become 
part  of  a  paragraph. 

The  rule  dictated  by  paragraph-unity  for  the  division  of 
a  paragraph  into  sentences  is  that  the  full  stops  should  be 
placed  at  the  close  of  the  larger  breaks  in  the  thought. 
What  the  sentence  divisions  shall  be  will  depend  upon  the 
meaning  in  each  case ;  upon  the  need  of  giving  prominence 
to  the  chief  assertion,  and  of  keeping  the  other  assertions 


PUNCTUATION.  57 

subordinate.  If  every  assertion  were  followed  by  a  full  stop 
the  style  would  be  too  broken.  A  sentence  in  a  paragraph 
may  contain  a  number  of  assertions  if  they  are  more  closely 
connected  in  thought  than  the  matter  of  two  successive  sen- 
tences. To  illustrate :  — 

(1)  The  Commons  denied  the  King's  right  to  dispense,  not 
indeed  with  all  penal  statutes  but  with  penal  statutes  in  matters 
ecclesiastical,  and  gave  him  plainly  to  understand  that,  unless  he 
renounced  that  right,  they  would  grant  no  supply  for  the  Dutch 
war.  (2)  He,  for  a  moment,  showed  some  inclination  to  put 
everything  to  hazard;  but  he  was  strongly  advised  by  Lewis  to 
submit  to  necessity,  and  to  wait  for  better  times,  when  the  French 
armies,  now  employed  in  an  arduous  struggle  on  the  continent, 
might  be  available  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  discontent  in 
England.  (3)  In  the  Cabal  itself  the  signs  of  disunion  and 
treachery  began  to  appear.  (4)  Shaftesbury,  with  his  proverbial 
sagacity,  saw  that  a  violent  reaction  was  at  hand,  and  that  all 
things  were  tending  towards  a  crisis  resembling  that  of  1640. 
(5)  He  was  determined  that  such  a  crisis  should  not  find  him 
in  the  situation  of  Stratford.  (6)  He  therefore  turned  suddenly 
round,  and  acknowledged,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  that  the  Decla- 
ration was  illegal.  (7)  The  King,  thus  deserted  by  his  ally  and 
by  his  Chancellor,  yielded,  cancelled  the  Declaration,  and  solemnly 
promised  that  it  should  never  be  drawn  into  precedent.  —  Macau- 
lay  :  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.,  chap.  ii. 

The  first  sentence  of  the  quotation  above  contains  two 
distinct  assertions,  which  might,  so  far  as  ordinary  rules  of 
punctuation  go,  form  two  distinct  sentences ;  but  they  are 
more  closely  connected  in  thought  than  with  the  sentence 
numbered  (2)  and  so  are  properly  united  in  one  sentence. 
Likewise,  the  two  assertions  in  sentence  (2)  have  to  do  with 
one  subject,  "he,"  —  the  King,  —  and  so  are  properly  joined 
in  one  sentence.  Sentence  (3)  has  a  different  subject  and 
properly  stands  alone.  Sentences  (4),  (5),  and  (6)  are  on 
one  subject ;  and  (4)  and  (5)  might  have  been  united  without 
injury  ;  but  (6),  containing  one  of  the  most  important  asser- 


58  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

tions  of  the  paragraph,  required  the  distinction  which  sepa- 
rate statement  gives  it.  Sentence  (7),  being  on  a  different 
subject,  is,  of  course,  stated  by  itself. 

A  general  statement  containing  the  main  idea  may  be 
followed  by  a  specific  statement,  with  only  a  colon  or  semi- 
colon separating  the  two.  The  same  rule  is  followed  when 
the  second  statement  gives  a  short  reason,  an  example,  a 
qualification,  a  consequence,  an  explanation,  or  a  repetition. 
To  illustrate :  — 

Now  surely  this  ought  not  to  be  asserted,  unless  it  can  be 
proved;  we  should  speak  with  cautious  reverence  upon  such  a 
subject.  —  Quoted  by  Bain :  Rhetoric,  p.  87. 

Agriculture  is  the  foundation  of  manufactures ;  the  productions 
of  nature  are  the  materials  of  art.  —  Ibid. 

M.  Michelet,  indeed,  says  that  La  Pucelle  was  not  a  shepherdess. 
I  beg  his  pardon :  she  was.  What  he  rests  upon,  I  guess  pretty 
well :  it  is  the  evidence  of  a  woman  called  Haumette. 

—  De  Quincey:  Joan  of  Arc,  p.  42. 

With  what  reverence  have  I  paced  thy  great  bare  rooms  and 
courts  at  eventide !  They  spoke  of  the  past :  —  the  shade  of  some 
dead  accountant,  with  visionary  pen  in  ear,  would  flit  by  me,  stiff 
as  in  life.  —  Lamb:  Essays  of  Elia,  The  South-Sea  House. 

The  effect  of  the  semicolon  or  colon  used  in  this  way  is  to 
indicate  the  subordination  of  the  second  assertion,  which  has 
less  importance  and  prominence  when  attached  to  the  main 
proposition  than  if  it  should  stand  alone  in  a  separate  sen- 
tence. 

When  a  contrast,  introduced  usually  by  the  word  but, 
is  brief  and  is  not  to  be  dwelt  upon,  it  is  attached  to  the 
main  assertion  after  a  colon  or  semicolon.  When,  however, 
the  assertion  introduced  by  but  is  especially  emphatic,  or 
is  to  be  discussed  further,  it  is  usually  given  distinction  by 
being  set  off  in  a  separate  sentence.  The  following  will 
illustrate  these  two  facts:  — 


P  UNCT  UA  TION.  59 

Some  modern  writers  have  blamed  Halifax  for  continuing  in 
the  ministry  while  he  disapproved  of  the  manner  in  which  both 
domestic  and  foreign  affairs  were  conducted.  But  this  censure  is 
unjust.  —  Macaulay :  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.,  chap.  iii. 

There  were  undoubtedly  scholars  to  whom  the  whole  Greek 
literature,  from  Homer  to  Photius,  was  familiar :  but  such  scholars 
were  to  be  found  almost  exclusively  among  the  clergy  resident  at 
the  Universities.  —  Ibid. 

Thus  emboldened,  the  King  at  length  ventured  to  overstep  the 
bounds  which  he  had  during  some  years  observed,  and  to  violate 
the  plain  letter  of  the  law.  The  law  was  that  not  more  than  three 
years  should  pass  between  the  dissolving  of  one  Parliament  and 
the  convoking  of  another.  But,  when  three  years  had  elapsed 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  Parliament  which  sate  at  Oxford,  no 
writs  were  issued  for  an  election.  This  infraction,  etc.  —  Ibid. 

It  is  not  very  easy  to  explain  why  the  nation  which  was  so  far 
before  its  neighbors  in  science  should  in  art  have  been  far  behind 
them.  Yet  such  was  the  fact.  It  is  true  that  in  architecture  .  .  . 
our  country  could  boast  of  one  truly  great  man,  Christopher  Wren  ; 
.  .  .  But  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second  there  was 
not  a  single  English  painter  or  statuary  whose  name  is  now  remem- 
bered. This  sterility,  etc.  —  Ibid.,  chap.  iii. 

He  acted  at  different  times  with  both  the  great  political  parties : 
but  he  never  shared  in  the  passions  of  either.  .  .  .  His  deportment 
was  remarkably  grave  and  reserved :  but  his  personal  tastes  were 
low  and  frivolous.  —  Ibid.,  chap.  ii. 

The  same  considerations  of  prominence,  emphasis,  and 
length  determine  whether  a  reason  introduced  by  for  shall 
be  appended  to  the  main  statement  or  shall  be  given  the 
distinction  of  a  separate  sentence.  To  illustrate:  — 

The  commencement  of  the  new  system  was,  however,  hailed  with 
general  delight ;  for  the  people  were  in  a  temper  to  think  any  change 
an  improvement.  They  were  also  pleased  by  some  of  the  new  nomi- 
nations.—  Macaulay  :  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.,  chap.  ii. 

France,  indeed,  had  at  that  time  an  empire  over  mankind,  such 
as  even  the  Roman  Republic  never  attained.  For,  when  Rome  was 


60  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

politically  dominant,  she  was  in  arts  and  letters  the  humble  pupil 
of  Greece.  France  had,  over  the  surrounding  countries,  at  once 
the  ascendency  which  Rome  had  over  Greece  and  the  ascendency 
which  Greece  had  over  Rome.  —  Ibid.,  chap.  iii. 

A  paragraph  of  details  may  group  the  details  in  a  few 
long  sentences,  the  parts  being  divided  by  semicolons  or 
colons ;  or  each  detail  may  be  presented  as  a  separate  sen- 
tence. The  advantage  of  the  former  is  that  it  better  se- 
cures unity  of  effect ;  the  advantage  of  the  latter  is  that  it 
secures  a  more  emphatic  presentment  of  the  details.  A 
combination  of  the  two  plans  is  advisable.  They  are  illus- 
trated in  the  following :  — 

France  united  at  that  time  almost  every  species  of  ascendency. 
Her  military  glory  w/w  at  its  height.  She  had  vanquished  mighty 
coalitions.  She  had  dictated  treaties.  She  had  subjugated  great 
cities  and  provinces.  She  had  forced  the  Castilian  pride  to  yield 
her  the  precedence.  She  had  summoned  Italian  princes  to  pros- 
trate themselves  at  her  footstool.  —  lbi<L 

The  interest  which  the  populace  took  in  him  whom  they  regarded 
as  the  champion  of  the  true  religion  and  the  rightful  heir  of  the 
British  throne,  was  kept  up  by  every  artifice.  When  Monmouth 
arrived  in  London  at  midnight,  the  watchmen  were  ordered  by  the 
magistrates  to  proclaim  the  joyful  event  through  the  streets  of  the 
city:  the  people  left  their  beds:  bonfires  were  lighted:  the  win- 
dows were  illuminated :  the  churches  were  opened :  and  a  merry 
peal  rose  from  all  the  steeples.  —  lf>i<l. 

The  following  selections  are  cited  as  examples  of  logical 
paragraphic  division  into  sentences,  in  which  the  punctua- 
tion is  a  decided  help  to  clearness  of  presentation,  and  assists, 
to  a  marked  degree,  in  keeping  the  main  subject  prominent 
and  lesser  details  subordinate :  — 

Lawrence  Hyde  was  the  second  son  of  the  Chancellor  Clarendon, 
and  was  brother  of  the  first  Duchess  of  York.  He  had  excellent 
parts,  which  had  been  improved  by  parliamentary  and  diplomatic 
experience ;  but  the  infirmities  of  his  temper  detracted  much  from 


PUNCTUATION.  61 

the  effective  strength  of  his  abilities.  Negotiator  and  courtier  as 
he  was,  he  never  learned  the  art  of  governing  or  of  concealing  his 
emotions.  When  prosperous,  he  was  insolent  and  boastful :  when 
he  sustained  a  check,  his  undisguised  mortification  doubled  the 
triumph  of  his  enemies :  very  slight  provocations  sufficed  to  kindle 
his  anger;  and  when  he  was  angry  he  said  bitter  things  which  he 
forgot  as  soon  as  he  was  pacified,  but  which  others  remembered 
many  years.  His  quickness  and  penetration  would  have  made  him 
a  consummate  man  of  business  but  for  his  self-sufficiency  and 
impatience.  His  writings  proved  that  he  had  many  of  the  quali- 
ties of  an  orator:  but  his  irritability  prevented  him  from  doing 
himself  justice  in  debate;  for  nothing  was  easier  than  to  goad  him 
into  a  passion ;  and,  from  the  moment  when  he  went  into  a  passion, 
he  was  at  the  mercy  of  opponents  far  inferior  to  him  in  capacity. 

—  Ibid.,  chap.  ii. 

Whenever  the  arts  and  labors  of  life  are  fulfilled  in  this  spirit 
of  striving  against  misrule,  and  doing  whatever  we  have  to  do, 
honorably  and  perfectly,  they  invariably  bring  happiness,  as  much 
as  seems  possible  to  the  nature  of  man.  In  all  other  paths,  by 
which  that  happiness  is  pursued,  there  is  disappointment,  or  de- 
struction: for  ambition  and  for  passion  there  is  no  rest — no  frui- 
tion ;  the  fairest  pleasures  of  youth  perish  in  a  darkness  greater 
than  their  past  light ;  and  the  loftiest  and  purest  love  too  often 
does  but  inflame  the  cloud  of  life  with  endless  fire  of  pain.  But, 
ascending  from  lowest  to  highest,  through  every  scale  of  human 
industry,  that  industry  worthily  followed,  gives  peace.  Ask  the 
laborer  in  the  field,  at  the  forge,  or  in  the  mine;  ask  the  patient, 
delicate-fingered  artisan,  or  the  strong-armed,  fiery-hearted  worker 
in  bronze,  and  in  marble,  and  with  the  colors  of  light ;  and  none  of 
these,  who  are  true  workmen,  will  ever  tell  you,  that  they  have 
found  the  law  of  heaven  an  unkind  one  —  that  in  the  sweat  of 
their  face  they  should  eat  bread,  till  they  return  to  the  ground ; 
nor  that  they  ever  found  it  an  unrewarded  obedience,  if,  indeed,  it 
was  rendered  faithfully  to  the  command  —  "  Whatsoever  thy  hand 
findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might."  —  Ruskin :  The  Mystery  of 
Life,  §  128. 


62  THE  PARAGRAPH. 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE. 

33.  The  illustrative  paragraphs  quoted  in  the  preceding 
pages  have  been  sufficient  to  show  that  there  are  many  dis- 
tinct types  of  paragraph   structure.     Under  the  heading, 
Means   of  Developing  the   Paragraph-theme,  the  various 
expedients  have  been  pointed  out,  by  which  the  theme  may 
be  effectively  presented  and  wrought  out  in  detail.    We 
shall  now  name  and  illustrate  some  of  the  more  important 
types  of  structure  in  the  isolated  paragraph  which  result 
from  the  character  of  the  theme  as  Expository,  Argumenta- 
tive, Descriptive,  or  Narrative. 

34.  Expository  and  Argumentative.  — This  type  is  devoted 
to  explaining  and  expounding  an  idea  or  to  proving  a  propo- 
sition.    It  is  the  type  in  which  regular  structure  is  most 
obvious.     It  may  employ  one  or  several  of  the  means  of 
developing  the  theme,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  theme 
and  to  the  method  of  treatment  demanded.    In  some  cases 
a  strictly  logical  plan  is  needed;   in  others  a  less  formal 
method  will  be  better. 

35.  The  Logical  Type.  —  There  are  two  orders  of  progress 
in  thought,  one  proceeding  from  the  statement  of  a  general 
principle  to  particular  applications  of  the  principle  (deduc- 
tive reasoning),  the  other  proceeding  from  the  statement  of 
particular  facts  to  a  general  conclusion  from   those  facts 
(inductive  reasoning).     In  deductive  reasoning,  the  general 
principle  (stated  usually  at  the  beginning)  is  applied  in  the 
particulars  ;  in  inductive  reasoning  the  general  principle  (stated 
usually  at  the  end)  is  inferred  from  the  particulars,  as  a  con- 
clusion.    In  a  deductive  paragraph,  as  would  be  expected, 
the  sentences  applying  the  principle  to  the  particular  case  in 
hand,  usually  follow  the  topic-statement,  which  announces 
the  principle.     In  an  inductive   paragraph  the   sentences 


TYPES   OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  63 

stating  the  particular  facts  usually  precede  the  topic-state- 
ment, which  gives  the  general  conclusion. 

36.  Deductive.  —  It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  deduc- 
tion that  the  means  of  development  which  it  most  often 
employs  will  be  those  indicated  and  illustrated  under  the 
headings,  Presenting  Reasons,  Applying  a  Principle  (see 
Means  of  Developing  the  Paragraph-theme,  §§  22,23).  For 
deduction  has  for  its  standard  of  reasoning,  this  maxim : 
Whatever  is  affirmed  or  denied  truthfully  of  a  whole  class, 
may  be  affirmed  or  denied  truthfully  in  like  manner  of 
everything  comprehended  under  that  class.  To  illustrate :  — 

[Principle]  Wheresoever  the  search  after  truth  begins,  there  life ' 
begins;  wheresoever  that  search  ceases,  there  life  ceases.  [Appli- 
cation] As  long  as  a  school  of  art  holds  any  chain  of  natural  facts, 
trying  to  discover  more  of  them  and  express  them  better  daily,  it 
may  play  hither  and  thither  as  it  likes  on  this  side  of  the  chain  or 
on  that ;  it  may  design  grotesques  and  conventionalisms,  build  up 
the  simplest  buildings,  serve  the  most  practical  utilities,  yet  all  it 
does  will  be  gloriously  designed  and  gloriously  done;  but  let  it 
once  quit  hold  of  the  chain  of  natural  fact,  cease  to  pursue  that  as 
a  clew  to  its  work ;  let  it  purpose  to  itself  any  other  end  than 
preaching  this  living  word,  and  think  first  of  showing  its  own  skill 
or  its  own  fancy,  and  from  that  hour  its  fall  is  precipitate, — its 
destruction  sure;  nothing  that  it  does  or  designs  will  ever  have  life 
or  loveliness  in  it  more ;  its  hour  has  come  and  there  is  no  work 
nor  device  nor  knowledge  nor  wisdom  in  the  grave  whither  it 
goeth.  —  Ruskin  :  The  Grounds  of  Art. 

Nihilism,  so  far  as  one  can  find  out,  expresses  rather  a  method, 
or  a  means,  than  an  end.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  what  Nihilism 
does  imply.  So  much  appears  reasonably  certain  —  [General  state- 
ment] that  the  primary  object  of  the  Nihilists  is  destruction  ;  [Par- 
ticulars] that  the  abolition  of  the  existing  order,  not  the  construction 
of  a  new  order,  is  in  their  view ;  that,  whatever  their  ulterior  de- 
signs, or  whether  or  no  they  have  any  ultimate  purpose  in  which 
they  are  all  or  generally  agreed,  the  one  object  which  now  draws 
and  holds  them  together,  in  spite  of  all  the  terrors  of  arbitrary 


64  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

power,  is  the  abolition,  not  only  of  all  existing  governments,  but 
of  all  political  estates,  all  institutions,  all  privileges,  all  forms  of 
authority ;  and  that  to  this  is  postponed  whatever  plans,  purposes, 
or  wishes  the  confederation,  or  its  members  individually,  may 
cherish  concerning  the  reorganization  of  society.  —  Francis  A. 
Walker:  Socialism. 

37.  Inductive.  —  From  the  nature  of  induction,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  means  of  development  which  it  employs  most 
often  are  those  indicated  and  illustrated  under  the  headings, 
Particulars  and  Details,  and  Cause  and  Effect  (see  Means 
of  Developing  the  Paragraph-theme,  §§  19,  25).  The 
other  means  of  development,  repetition,  contrast,  definition, 
comparison  and  illustration,  specific  instances  and  examples, 
are  used  in  paragraphs  of  both  orders,  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire. The  following  illustrate  the  inductive  order:  — 

Sir,  whilst  we  held  this  happy  course,  [Particulars]  we  drew 
more  from  the  Colonies  than  all  the  impotent  violence  of  despotism 
ever  could  extort  from  them.  We  did  this  abundantly  in  the  last 
war.  It  has  never  been  once  denied ;  and  what  reason  have  we  to 
imagine  that  the  Colonies  would  not  have  proceeded  in  supplying 
government  as  liberally,  if  you  had  not  stepped  in  and  hindered 
them  from  contributing,  by  interrupting  the  channel  in  which  their 
liberality  flowed  with  so  strong  a  course ;  by  attempting  to  take, 
instead  of  being  satisfied  to  receive?  Sir  William  Temple  says 
that  Holland  has  loaded  itself  with  ten  times  the  impositions, 
which  it  revolted  from  Spain,  rather  than  submit  to.  He  says 
true.  [General  conclusion]  Tyranny  is  a  poor  provider.  It  knows 
neither  how  to  accumulate,  nor  how  to  extract.  —  Burke :  American 
Taxation,  p.  158  (Payne's  ed.). 

Is  it  better  to  place  the  adjective  before  the  substantive,  or  the 
substantive  before  the  adjective?  Ought  we  to  say  with  the 
French  —  tin  cheval  noir;  or  to  say  as  we  do  —  a  black  horse? 
[Particulars  from  which  conclusion  is  to  be  drawn]  Probably  most 
persons  of  culture  would  decide  that  one  order  is  as  good  as  the 
other.  Alive  to  the  bias  produced  by  habit,  they  would  ascribe  to 
that  the  preference  they  feel  for  our  own  form  of  expression. 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  65 

They  would  expect  those  educated  in  the  use  of  the  opposite  form 
to  have  an  equal  preference  for  that.  And  thus  they  would  con- 
clude that  neither  of  these  instinctive  judgments  is  of  any  worth. 
There  is,  however,  a  philosophical  ground  for  deciding  in  favor 
of  the  English  custom.  If  "  a  horse  black  "  be  the  arrangement, 
immediately  on  the  utterance  of  the  word  "  horse,"  there  arises,  or 
tends  to  arise,  in  the  mind,  a  picture  answering  to  that  word  ;  and 
as  there  has  been  nothing  to  indicate  what  kind  of  horse,  any 
image  of  a  horse  suggests  itself.  Very  likely,  however,  the  image 
will  be  that  of  a  brown  horse,  brown  horses  being  the  most  famil- 
iar. The  result  is  that  when  the  word  "black  "  is  added,  a  check 
is  given  to  the  process  of  thought.  Either  the  picture  of  a  brown 
horse  already  present  to  the  imagination  has  to  be  suppressed,  and 
the  picture  of  a  black  one  summoned  in  its  place;  or  else,  if  the 
picture  of  a  brown  horse  be  yet  unformed,  the  tendency  to  form  it 
has  to  be  stopped.  Whichever  is  the  case,  a  certain  amount  of 
hindrance  results.  But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  "  a  black  horse  "  be 
the  expression  used,  DO  such  mistake  can  be  made.  The  word 
"  black,"  indicating  an  abstract  quality,  arouses  no  definite  idea. 
It  simply  prepares  the  mind  for  conceiving  some  object  of  that 
color ;  and  the  attention  is  kept  suspended  until  that  object  is 
known.  [Conclusion]  If,  then,  by  the  precedence  of  the  adjective, 
the  idea  is  conveyed  without  liability  to  error,  whereas  the  prece- 
dence of  the  substantive  is  apt  to  produce  a  misconception,  it  follows 
that  the  one  gives  the  mind  less  trouble  than  the  other,  and  is 
therefore  more  forcible.  —  Spencer :  Philosophy  of  Style. 

[Particulars  from  which  conclusion  is  to  be  drawn]  We  do  not 
notice  the  ticking  of  the  clock,  the  noise  of  the  city  streets,  or  the 
roaring  of  the  brook  near  the  house ;  and  even  the  din  of  a  laundry 
or  factory  will  not  mingle  with  the  thoughts  of  its  workers,  if  they 
have  been  there  long  enough.  When  we  first  put  on  spectacles, 
especially  if  they  be  of  certain  curvatures,  the  bright  reflections 
they  give  of  the  windows,  etc.,  mixing  with  the  field  of  view,  are 
very  disturbing.  In  a  few  days  we  ignore  them  altogether.  .  .  . 
The  pressure  of  our  clothes  and  shoes,  the  beating  of  our  hearts 
and  arteries,  our  breathing,  certain  steadfast  bodily  pains,  habitual 
odors,  tastes  in  the  mouth,  etc.,  are  examples  from  other  senses 
of  [Conclusion]  the  same  lapse  into  unconsciousness  of  any  too 


66  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

unchanging  content  —  a  lapse  which  Hobbes  has  expressed  in  the 
well-known  phrase,  "  Semper  idem  sentire  ac  non  sentire  ad  idem 
revertunt."  —  James,  Psychology,  Vol.  II.,  p.  455. 

38.  The  Less  Formal  Types. — All  paragraphs,  whatever 
their  method  of  construction,  might  be  classified  either  as 
deductive  or  as  inductive,  and  there  would  be  room  for  con- 
siderable casuistry  in  determining  under  which  head  many 
paragraphs  would  fall.     The  fact  that  it  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  find  examples  of  paragraphs  which  are  undeniably 
deductive  or  clearly  inductive  indicates  a  close  relationship 
between  the  two  orders  and  their  constant  intermingling 
in  the  mind.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  two  progressions 
are  always  combined  in  thought.     In  putting  his  mental 
procedure  into  language,  however,  the  writer  may  pursue  a 
variety  of  methods.     He  may  (1)  suppress  the  inductive 
operations  which  have  gone  on  in  his  mind  while  thinking 
on  the  subject  in  hand,  (2)  suppress  the  deductive  opera- 
tions, (3)  mingle  the  two.     The  tendency  in  good  prose  is 
always  to  mingle  the  two  orders  of  thought.     Thus  in  a 
paragraph  which  is  clearly  deprived  of  most  of  the  deduc- 
tive features,  the  conclusion  may  yet  be  stated  first.     In  a 
paragraph  deprived  of  most  of  the  inductive  features,  the 
general  principle  may  still  be  stated,  or  restated,  at  the 
close.     In  other  cases  one  progression  will  succeed  another 
at  intervals  throughout  the  paragraph. 

This  intermingling  of  deduction  and  induction  which  is 
seen  in  almost  all  paragraphs  of  an  expository  and  argu- 
mentative character  gives  a  less  formal  appearance  to  para- 
graphs of  this  kind.  For  purposes  of  illustration,  therefore, 
all  expository  and  argumentative  paragraphs  which  are  not 
exclusively  deductive  or  exclusively  inductive  are  here 
brought  under  the  title  of  Mess  formal  types/ 

39.  Paragraphs  of  Definition.  —  A  whole  paragraph  may 
be  devoted  to  defining  the  subject.     Some  terms  require  a 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  67 

careful  statement  of  their  scope.  A  term  is  denned  not 
only  by  giving  its  etymology,  a  history  of  its  changes  in 
meaning,  and  its  current  uses,  but  by  giving  its  applications 
to  various  departments  of  thought.  In  the  following  quota- 
tion, Sir  William  Hamilton  defines  the  term  Philosophy:  — 

There  are  two  questions  to  be  answered :  1st,  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  the  name  ?  and  2d,  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  thing  f  An 
answer  to  the  former  question  is  afforded  in  a  nominal  definition 
of  the  term  philosophy,  and  in  a  history  of  its  employment  and  ap- 
plication. In  regard  to  the  etymological  signification  of  the  word, 
Philosophy  is  a  term  of  Greek  origin.  It  is  a  compound  of  <£i'A.os, 
a  lover  or  friend,  and  o-o<£tu,  wisdom  —  speculative  wisdom.  Phi- 
losophy is  thus,  literally,  a  love  of  wisdom.  ...  It  is  probable,  I 
think,  that  Socrates  was  the  first  who  adopted,  or  at  least  the  first 
who  familiarized,  the  expression.  It  was  natural  that  he  should 
be  anxious  to  contradistinguish  himself  from  the  Sophists  (01 
<7o<£ot,  01  <ro<£urrai),  literally,  the  wise  men;  and  no  term  could 
more  appropriately  ridicule  the  arrogance  of  these  pretenders,  or 
afford  a  happier  contrast  to  their  haughty  designation,  than  that 
of  philosopher  (i.e.  the  lover  of  wisdom);  and,  at  the  same  time,  it 
is  certain  that  the  substantives  tf>L\wro^>ta  and  <£iAo(ro<£o<>  first 
appear  in  the  writings  of  the  Socratic  school.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  the  verb  <jnXoao<t>£v  is  found  in  Herodotus,  in  the  address  by 
Croesus  to  Solon ;  and  that,  too,  in  a  participial  form,  to  designate 
the  latter  as  a  man  who  had  traveled  abroad  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  knowledge.  It  is,  therefore,  not  impossible  that,  before 
the  time  of  Socrates,  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  pursuit 
of  the  higher  branches  of  knowledge  were  occasionally  designated 
philosophers:  but  it  is  far  more  probable  that  Socrates  and  his 
school  first  appropriated  the  term  as  a  distinctive  appellation ;  and 
that  the  word  philosophy,  in  consequence  of  this  appropriation, 
came  to  be  employed  for  the  complement  of  all  higher  knowledge, 
and,  more  especially,  to  denote  the  science  conversant  about  the  prin- 
ciples or  causes  of  existence.  The  term  philosophy,  I  may  notice, 
which  was  originally  assumed  in  modesty,  soon  lost  its  Socratic 
and  etymological  signification,  and  returned  to  the  meaning  of 
<7o<£ui,  or  wisdom.  Quintilian  calls  it  nomen  insolentissimum  ;  Sen- 
eca, nomen  invidiosum;  Epictetus  counsels  his  scholars  not  to  call 


68  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

themselves  'Philosophers';  and  proud  is  one  of  the  most  ordinary 
epithets  with  which  philosophy  is  now  associated. 

The  following  paragraph  is  a  definition  of  the  term  Public 
Duty:  — 

By  the  words  public  duty  I  do  not  necessarily  mean  official  duty, 
although  it  may  include  that.  I  mean  simply  that  constant  and 
active  practical  participation  in  the  details  of  politics  without  which, 
upon  the  part  of  the  most  intelligent  citizens,  the  conduct  of  public 
affairs  falls  under  the  control  of  selfish  and  ignorant,  or  crafty  and 
venal  men.  I  mean  that  personal  attention  which,  as  it  must  be 
incessant,  is  often  wearisome  and  even  repulsive,  to  the  details  of 
politics,  attendance  at  meetings,  service  upon  committees,  care  and 
trouble,  and  expense  of  many  kinds,  patient  endurance  of  rebuffs, 
chagrins,  ridicules,  disappointments,  defeats  —  in  a  word,  all  those 
duties  and  services  which,  when  selfishly  and  meanly  performed, 
stigmatize  a  man  as  a  mere  politician,  but  whose  constant,  honor- 
able, intelligent,  and  vigilant  performance  is  the  gradual  building, 
stone  by  stone,  and  layer  by  layer,  of  that  great  temple  of  self- 
restrained  liberty  which  all  generous  souls  mean  that  our  govern- 
ment shall  be.  —  G.  W.  Curtis  :  The  Public  Duty  of  Educated  Men. 

40.  Paragraphs  of  Specific  Instances.  —  This  is  one  of 
the  most  common  types  of  paragraph,  consisting  simply  of 
the  topic-statement  followed  by  one  or  more  instances.  In  the 
first  paragraph  following  there  are  two  instances ;  one  the 
case  of  the  Columbia  River,  the  other  the  case  of  the  Mis- 
souri. The  word  illustration  is  used  in  its  popular  sense, 
not  in  its  technical  sense ;  strictly  speaking  it  should  be  in- 
stance.  In  the  second  paragraph  below  (from  De  Quincey) 
the  instances  are  given  in  the  second  and  fourth  sentences. 
In  the  third  quotation  we  have  a  paragraph  that  combines 
reasons,  example,  and  application. 

If  every  drop  of  water  which  falls  on  the  mountain  summits 
could  be  utilized,  it  is  not  likely  that  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  the 
total  area  of  the  arid  West  could  be  irrigated,  and  it  is  certain  that, 
because  of  physical  obstacles,  it  will  never  be  possible  to  get  water 


TYPES   OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  69 

to  even  this  small  percentage.  As  an  illustration  of  what  is  meant 
by  this  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Columbia  River  is  from  three 
hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  bordering 
arid  table-land  in  northeastern  Washington.  It  would  be  imprac- 
ticable to  raise  its  water  to  the  lands  requiring  irrigation.  Through- 
out a  large  part  of  its  course  in  Montana  and  the  Dakotas,  the 
Missouri  River  flows  in  a  deep  channel,  and  as  it  falls  only  two  or 
three  feet  per  mile,  the  elevation  of  its  water  to  the  level  of  the 
land  which  might  be  irrigated  is  at  present  practically  impossible, 
because  the  work  necessary  for  such  utilization  will  cost  more  than 
the  land  and  the  water  are  worth. — Mead :  Irrigation  Institutions,  p.  5. 

The  sense  of  space,  and  in  the  end  the  sense  of  time,  were  both 
powerfully  affected.  •  Buildings,  landscapes,  etc.,  were  exhibited  in 
proportions  so  vast  as  the  bodily  eye  is  not  fitted  to  receive.  Space 
swelled,  and  was  amplified  to  an  extent  of  unutterable  infinity. 
This,  however,  did  not  disturb  me  so  much  as  the  vast  expansion 
of  time.  I  sometimes  seemed  to  have  lived  for  seventy  or  one 
hundred  years  in  one  night ;  nay,  sometimes  had  feelings  represent- 
ative of  a  millennium,  passed  in  that  time,  or,  however,  of  a  duration 
far  beyond  the  limits  of  any  human  experience.  —  De  Quincey: 
Confessions  of  an  English  Opium-Eater. 

[Topic-statement]  We  are  by  no  means  sure  that  the  refusal  of 
the  authorities  to  permit  the  public  meeting  was  well  advised.  .  .  . 
[Reasons]  To  suppress  such  a  gathering,  to  forbid  men  to  air  their 
grievances  and  propose  their  panaceas,  will  not  in  the  least  abate 
the  discontent  or  allay  the  irritation.  Men  who  are  out  of  work, 
who  have  a  grudge  against  the  existing  order,  are  easily  provoked 
to  violence ;  but  there  is  no  surer  provocative  than  to  deny  them 
free  speech.  An  incendiary  orator  may  set  them  off ;  forcible  re- 
pression by  the  clubs  of  the  police  is  almost  sure  to  do  so.  If  you 
want  an  explosion,  hang  the  monkey-wrench  on  the  safety-valve 
and  crowd  on  full  steam ;  if  you  want  to  avoid  an  explosion,  open 
some  vent  and  blow  off  steam.  [Application]  Hence  the  authori- 
ties should  adopt  the  policy  of  suppression  only  as  a  last  desperate 
resort  in  an  extraordinary  crisis.  This  advice  is  not  doctrinaire; 
it  is  the  fruit  of  experience.  [Example]  Of  the  great  cities  of 
the  world,  London  is  the  one  which  suffers  least  from  the  agitation 
of  anarchists  and  the  outbreaks  of  the  mob.  And  the  reason,  we 


70  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

are  convinced,  is  that  the  police  there  interfere  as  little  as  possible 
with  public  gatherings.  In  Trafalgar  Square,  Hyde  Park,  and 
other  great  open  spaces  large  crowds  gather  to  listen  to  agitators 
of  all  sorts.  Plenty  of  police  are  on  hand  to  exercise  restraint  in 
case  of  need.  The  law  in  England,  as  in  this  country,  is  clear  and 
explicit  with  regard  to  incitements  to  disorder  and  to  murder; 
and  the  speakers  who  cross  the  line  may  be  arrested  and  brought 
to  account.  But  the  authorities  exercise  a  large  and  indeed 
generous  tolerance.  .  .  .  [Application]  Force  is  a  feeble  weapon  in 
dealing  with  unrest  and  agitation.  ...  If  we  cannot  marshal  ar- 
guments to  destroy  the  fallacies  and  the  half-truths  upon  which 
the  structure  of  socialistic  and  anarchistic  theory  rests,  our  case  is 
hopeless.  Argument  with  ignorant,  hungry,  and  excited  men  is, 
obviously,  a  formidable  undertaking ;  but  still  it  is  the  only  method 
in  a  free  country  like  this.  Certainly,  the  clubs  of  the  police  will 
never  put  sound  ideas  into  people's  heads.  Reason,  coolness,  and 
forbearance  on  the  part  of  men  of  intelligence  are  what  the  hour 
calls  for.  —  N.  Y.  Evening  Post,  March  30,1908. 

41.  Paragraphs  of  Illustration.  —  A  paragraph  may  con- 
sist simply  of  topic-statement  and  illustration.  When  well- 
chosen,  the  illustration  running  through  the  paragraph  gives 
it  unity  and  clearness  in  a  high  degree. 

The  poet  is  like  a  bee.  His  product  is  a  honey,  which  is  neither 
wholly  his  own  nor  wholly  nature's.  No  pure  nectar  of  flowers  may 
be  found  in  the  bee's  comb;  the  amber  richness  garnered  there  is 
a  distillation  of  composite  nature,  a  brew  of  flower-life  and  bee-life 
indescribably  characteristic  of  both  flower  and  bee.  This  is  the 
formula  for  genuine  originality —  the  personal  quality  of  genius 
inseparably  blent  with  the  finest  and  rarest  extracts  of  nature.  A 
clear  distinction  may  easily  be  made  between  what  is  written  merely 
about  nature  and  what  is  distilled  from  nature  in  the  alembic  of 
genius.  The  former  may  be  attractive  reading,  the  latter  has  for 
its  distinction  the  haunting  and  tantalizing  flavor  of  indiscoverable, 
immanent  freshness.  —  Maurice  Thompson:  Independent,  Feb.  2, 
1899. 

The  foundation  is  to  the  wall  what  the  paw  is  to  an  animal.  Tt 
ia  a  long  foot,  wider  than  the  wall,  on  which  the  wall  is  to  stand, 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  71 

aiid  which  keeps  it  from  settling  into  the  ground.  It  is  most  nec- 
essary that  this  great  element  of  security  should  be  visible  to  the 
eye,  and  therefore  made  a  part  of  the  structure  above  ground. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  it  becomes  incorporated  with  the  entire  founda- 
tion of  the  building,  a  vast  table  on  which  walls  or  piers  are  alike 
set:  but  even  then,  the  eye,  taught  by  the  reason,  requires  some 
additional  preparation  of  foot  for  the  wall,  and  the  building  is  felt 
to  be  imperfect  without  it.  This  foundation  we  shall  call  the  Base 
of  the  wall.  —  Ruskin :  Stones  of  Venice,  Vol.  I.,  p.  64. 

42.  Paragraphs  of  Causes  and  Results. — A  paragraph 
may  consist  of  a  topic-statement  followed  by  an  explana- 
tion of  the  causes  as  in  the  first  quotation  below ;  or,  the 
topic- statement  may  give  the  cause,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  paragraph  the  result,  as  in  the  second  quotation  below. 

[Topic]  Three  causes  combine  to  create  among  American 
women  an  average  of  literary  taste  and  influence  higher  than  that 
of  women  in  any  European  country.  These  are,  the  educational 
facilities  they  enjoy,  the  recognition  of  the  equality  of  the  sexes  in 
the  whole  social  and  intellectual  sphere,  and  the  leisure  which  they 
possess  as  compared  with  men.  [Explanation  of  the  causes]  In 
a  country  where  men  are  incessantly  occupied  at  their  business  or 
profession,  the  function  of  keeping  up  the  level  of  culture  devolves 
upon  women.  It  is  safe  in  their  hands.  They  are  quick  and  keen- 
witted,  less  fond  of  open-air  life  and  physical  exertion  than  Eng- 
lishwomen  are,  and  obliged  by  the  climate  to  pass  a  greater  part 
of  their  time  under  shelter  from  the  cold^of  jyinter^and  the  sun  of 
summer.  For  music  and  for  the  pictorial  arts  they  do  not  yet  seem 
to  have  formed  so  strong  a  taste  as  for  literature,  partly  perhaps, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  in  America  the  opportunities  of  seeing  and 
hearing  masterpieces,  except  indeed  operas,  are  rarer  than  in 
Europe.  But  they  are  eager  and  assiduous  readers  of  all  such 
books  and  periodicals  as  do  not  presuppose  special  knowledge  in 
some  branch  of  science  or  learning,  while  the  number  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  some  special  study  and  attained  proficiency 
in  it  is  large.  The  fondness  for  sentiment,  especially  moral  and 
domestic  sentiment,  which  is  often  observed  as  characterizing 
American  taste  in  literature,  seems  to  be  mainly  due  to  the 


72  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

influence  of  women,  for  they  form  not  only  the  larger  part  of  the 
reading  public,  but  an  independent-minded  part,  not  disposed  to 
adopt  the  canons  laid  down  by  men,  and  their  preferences  count 
for  more  in  the  opinions  and  predilections  of  the  whole  nation 
than  is  the  case  in  England.  Similarly  the  number  of  women 
who  write  is  infinitely  larger  in  America  than  in  Europe.  Fiction, 
essays,  and  poetry  are  naturally  their  favourite  provinces.  In 
poetry  more  particularly,  many  whose  names  are  quite  unknown 
in  Europe  have  attained  widespread  fame.  —  Bryce  :  The  American 
Commonwealth,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  741. 

[Topic]  The  true  function  of  reservoirs  is  to  act  as  regulators ; 
to  hold  back  the  water  which  would  otherwise  run  to  waste,  when 
it  is  not  needed,  and  supply  it  to  irrigators  in  times  of  scarcity. 
[Result]  When  this  is  done,  the  stored  water  will  supplement  that 
which  can  be  taken  by  direct  diversion.  With  some  irrigators  the 
natural  flow  will  supply  nearly  all  their  needs ;  stored  water  will 
only  be  required  for  a  brief  period,  —  perhaps  for  a  week,  perhaps 
only  for  a  single  day.  Others  with  later  rights  in  the  stream  will 
have  to  draw  more  largely  on  the  stored  supply,  but  none  need 
rely  entirely  upon  it  if  streams  are  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

—  Mead  :  Irrigation  Institutions. 

43.  Descriptive  and  Narrative  Paragraphs.  —  In  para- 
graphs of  this  kind  the  plan  is  not  so  easily  seen,  for  in 
these  paragraphs  the  sequence  is  determined  not  solely  by 
the  logical  order  of  thought,  but  by  the  nature  of  the  object 
described  or  the  event  narrated.  It  may  have  to  deal  with 
seemingly  unrelated  particulars.  These,  however,  may  be 
grouped  so  as  to  produce  a  single  effect  on  the  mind.  A 
building  is  something  more  than  foundations,  walls,  roof, 
door,  and  windows.  It  has  a  meaning  as  a  whole  to  which 
these  in  their  united  capacities  contribute.  A  series  of 
events,  taken  singly,  are  without  significance  unless  reported 
with  their  total  meaning  as  a  group  clearly  in  mind. 

Tn  the  following  descriptive  paragraph  from  Ruskin 
(Prceterita,  Vol.  II.,  chap,  v.)  notice  how  the  comparison  of 


TYPES   OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  73 

the  river  Rhone  to  a  wave  (the  theme)  binds  all  the  details 
into  a  unified  whole :  — 

Waves  of  clear  sea  are,  indeed,  lovely  to  watch,  but  they  are  al- 
ways coming  or  gone,  never  in  any  taken  shape  to  be  seen  for  a 
second.  But  here  was  one  mighty  wave  [The  Rhone]  that  was 
always  itself,  and  every  fluted  swirl  of  it,  constant  as  the  wreathing 
of  a  shell.  No  wasting  away  of  the  fallen  foam,  no  pause  for  gather- 
ing of  power,  no  helpless  ebb  of  discouraged  recoil ;  but  alike 
through  bright  day  and  lulling  night,  the  never-pausing  plunge  and 
never-fading  flash,  and  never-hushing  whisper,  and,  while  the  sun 
was  up,  the  ever-answering  glow  of  unearthly  aquamarine,  ultra- 
marine, violet  blue,  gentian  blue,  peacock  blue,  river-of -paradise 
blue,  glass  of  a  painted  window  melted  in  the  sun,  and  the  witch 
of  the  Alps  flinging  the  spun  tresses  of  it  forever  from  her  snow. 

In  the  following  narrative  paragraph  notice  that  the  nar- 
rative details  are  grouped  about  the  character  description, 
which  is  here  placed  in  brackets.  The  particulars  are  all 
colored  by  the  writer's  evident  sympathy  with  the  King. 

Charles  appeared  before  the  Court  only  to  deny  its  competence 
and  to  refuse  to  plead  ;  but  thirty-two  witnesses  were  examined  to 
satisfy  the  consciences  of  his  judges,  and  it  was  not  till  the  fifth 
day  of  the  trial  that  he  was  condemned  to  death  as  a  tyrant,  traitor, 
murderer,  and  enemy  of  his  country.  The  popular  excitement  had 
vented  itself  in  cries  of  "  Justice,"  or  "  God  save  your  Majesty,"  as 
the  trial  went  on,  but  all  save  the  loud  outcries  of  the  soldiers  was 
hushed  as  Charles  passed  to  receive  his  doom.  [The  dignity  which 
he  had  failed  to  preserve  in  his  long  jangling  with  Bradshaw  and 
the  judges  returned  at  the  call  of  death.  Whatever  had  been  the 
faults  and  follies  of  his  life,  he  "nothing  common  did,  or  mean,  upon 
that  memorable  scene."]  Two  masked  executioners  awaited  the 
King  as  he  mounted  the  scaffold,  which  had  been  erected  outside 
one  of  the  windows  of  the  Banqueting  House  at  Whitehall ;  the 
streets  and  roofs  were  thronged  with  spectators ;  and  a  strong  body 
of  soldiers  stood  drawn  up  beneath.  His  head  fell  at  the  first 
blow,  and  as  the  executioner  lifted  it  to  the  sight  of  all,  a  groan  of 
pity  and  horror  burst  from  the  silent  crowd. —  Green,  Short  History. 


74  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

44.  Paragraphs  of  Incident.  —  Paragraphs  of  simple  inci- 
dent are  a  very  common  type ;  they  are  often  very  skilfully 
done  in  the  daily  newspapers.  In  novels  some  of  the  most 
memorable  passages  are  paragraphs  embodying  single  in- 
cidents. 

[In  his  chapter  on  "  Personal  Experience  and  Review  "  Stevenson 
tells  how  educated  men  that  are  lazy  do  so  much  homage  to  in- 
dustry as  to  persuade  themselves  that  they  are  industrious.  "  But," 
he  continues,  "  the  average  mechanic  recognizes  his  idleness  with 
effrontery ;  he  has  even,  as  I  am  told,  organized  it."] 

I  give  the  story  as  it  was  told  to  me,  and  it  was  told  me  for 
a  fact.  A  man  fell  from  a  housetop  in  the  city  of  Aberdeen,  and 
was  brought  into  hospital  with  broken  bones.  He  was  asked  what 
was  his  trade,  and  replied  that  he  was  a  tapper.  No  one  had  ever 
heard  of  such  a  thing  before ;  the  officials  were  filled  with  curiosity; 
they  besought  an  explanation.  It  appeared  that  when  a  party  of 
slaters  were  engaged  upon  a  roof,  they  would  now  and  then  be  taken 
with  a  fancy  for  the  public-house.  Now  a  seamstress,  for  example, 
might  slip  away  from  her  work  and  no  one  be  the  wiser;  but  if 
these  fellows  adjourned,  the  tapping  of  the  mallets  would  cease, 
and  thus  the  neighborhood  be  advertised  of  their  defection. 
Hence  the  career  of  the  tapper.  He  has  to  do  the  tapping  and 
keep  up  an  industrious  bustle  on  the  housetop  during  the  absence 
of  the  slaters.  When  he  taps  for  only  one  or  two  the  thing  is 
child's-play,  but  when  he  has  to  represent  a  whole  troop,  it  is  then 
that  he  earns  his  money  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow.  Then  must 
he  bound  from  spot  to  spot,  reduplicate,  triplicate,  sexdupli- 
cate  his  single  personality,  and  swell  and  hasten  his  blows,  until 
he  produce  a  perfect  illusion  for  the  ear,  and  you  would  swear 
that  a  crowd  of  emulous  masons  were  continuing  merrily  to  roof 
the  house.  It  must  be  a  strange  sight  from  an  upper  window. 
—  Stevenson  :  The  Amateur  Emigrant. 

The  fact  that  armed  persons  were  still  abroad,  thieves  or 
assassins,  lurking  under  many  disguises,  might  explain  what  hap- 
pened on  the  last  evening  of  their  time  together,  when  they  sat 
late  at  the  open  windows  as  the  night  increased,  serene  but  covered 
summer  night,  aromatic,  velvet-footed.  What  coolness  it  had  was 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  75 

pleasant  after  the  wine ;  and  they  strolled  out,  fantastically  muffled 
in  certain  old  heraldic  dresses  of  parade,  caught  up  in  the  hall  as 
they  passed  through.  ...  In  about  an  hour's  time  they  returned, 
not  a  little  disconcerted,  to  tell  a  story.  .  .  .  Listening  for  the 
night-hawk,  pushing  aside  the  hedge-row  to  catch  the  evening 
breath  of  the  honeysuckle,  they  had  sauntered  on,  scarcely  looking 
in  advance,  along  the  causeway.  Soft  sounds  came  out  of  the  dis- 
tance, but  footsteps  on  the  hard  road  they  had  not  heard,  when 
three  others  fronted  them  face  to  face  —  Jasmin,  Amadee,  and 
Camille  —  their  very  selves,  visible  in  the  light  of  the  lantern  car- 
ried by  Camille:  they  might  have  felt  the  breath  upon  their 
cheeks :  real,  close,  definite,  cap  for  cap,  plume  for  plume,  flower 
for  flower,  a  light  like  their  own  flashed  up  counter-wise,  but  with 
blood,  all  three  of  them,  fresh  upon  the  bosom,  or  in  the  mouth. 
It  was  well  to  draw  the  sword,  be  one's  enemy  carnal  or  spiritual; 
even  devils,  as  wise  men  know,  taking  flight  at  its  white  glitter 
through  the  air.  Out  flashed  the  brave  youths'  swords,  still  with 
mimic  counter-motion,  upon  nothing  —  upon  the  empty  darkness 
before  them.  —  Pater :  Gaston  de  Latour,  p.  96. 

A  butcher  was  brought  into  a  druggist's  shop  (at  Edinburgh) 
from  the  market-place  opposite,  laboring  under  a  terrible  accident. 
The  man,  on  trying  to  hook  up  a  heavy  piece  of  meat  above  his 
head,  slipped,  and  the  sharp  hook  penetrated  his  arm,  so  that  he 
himself  was  suspended.  On  being  examined,  he  was  pale,  almost 
pulseless,  and  expressed  himself  as  suffering  acute  agony.  The 
arm  could  not  be  moved  without  causing  excessive  pain,  and  in 
cutting  off  the  sleeve  he  frequently  cried  out ;  yet  when  the  arm 
was  exposed  it  was  found  to  be  quite  uninjured,  the  hook  having 
only  traversed  the  sleeve  of  his  coat. 

A  lady  who  was  spending  the  summer  at  Margate,  went  to  the 
market  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  a  goose.  There  were  but 
two  in  the  whole  place,  offered  for  sale  by  a  girl  of  fourteen,  who 
refused  to  part  with  one  without  the  other,  assigning  no  other 
reason  for  her  obstinacy  than  that  it  was  her  mother's  order. 
Not  wishing  for  two  geese,  the  lady  at  first  declined  the  purchase, 
but  at  last  finding  no  other  was  to  be  had,  and  recollecting  that  a 
neighbor  might  be  prevailed  upon  to  take  one  off  her  hands,  she 
concluded  the  bargain.  Having  paid  for  and  secured  the  pair* 


76  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

she  asked  the  girl  at  parting  if  she  knew  her  mother's  reason  for 
the  directions  she  had  given.  "Oh,  yes!  mistress,"  answered  the 
young  poultry-merchant  readily,  "  mother  said  that  they  had  lived 
together  eleven  years,  and  it  would  be  a  sin  and  a  shame  to  part 
them  now." 

45.  Descriptive  Sketches.  —  The  following  will  illustrate 
the  brief  descriptive  sketch  at  its  best.  In  the  first  it  is 
the  idea  of  grandeur  running  through  all  of  the  details  that 
produces  the  effect  of  unity.  In  the  second  selection  the 
details  of  the  picture  are  united  by  the  road  which  one  is 
imagined  to  follow. 

There  were  usually  at  Burbeck  many  things  taking  place  at 
once ;  so  that  wherever  else,  on  such  occasions,  tea  might  be  served, 
it  went  forward  with  matchless  pomp,  weather  permitting,  on  a 
shaded  stretch  of  one  of  the  terraces  and  in  presence  of  one  of  the 
prospects.  Shirley  Sutton,  moving,  as  the  afternoon  waned,  more 
restlessly  about  and  mingling  in  dispersed  groups  only  to  find  they 
had  nothing  to  keep  him  quiet,  came  upon  it  as  he  turned  a  corner 
of  the  house  —  saw  it  seated  there  in  all  its  state.  It  might  be 
said  that  at  Burbeck  it  was,  like  everything  else,  made  the  most 
of.  It  constituted  immediately,  with  multiplied  tables  and  glitter- 
ing plate,  with  rugs  and  cushions  and  ices  and  fruit  and  wonderful 
porcelain  and  beautiful  women,  a  scene  of  splendor,  almost  an  in- 
cident of  grand  opera.  One  of  the  beautiful  women  might  quite 
have  been  expected  to  rise  with  a  gold  cup  and  a  celebrated  song. 

—  James:  The  Better  Sort. 

The  road  to  Hermiston  runs  for  a  great  part  of  the  way  up  the 
valley  of  a  stream,  a  favorite  -with  anglers  and  with  midges,  full 
of  falls  and  pools,  and  shaded  by  willows  and  natural  woods  of 
birch.  Here  and  there,  but  at  great  distances,  a  byway  branches 
off,  and  a  great  farmhouse  may  be  descried  above  in  a  fold  of  the 
hill:  but  the  more  part  of  the  time,  the  road  would  be  quite 
empty  of  passage  and  the  hills  of  habitation.  Hermiston  parish  is 
one  of  the  least  populous  in  Scotland  ;  and,  by  the  time  you  came 
that  length,  you  would  scarce  be  surprised  at  the  inimitable  small- 
ness  of  the  kirk,  a  dwarfish,  ancient  place  seated  for  fifty,  and 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  11 

standing  in  a  green  by  the  burn-side  among  two-score  gravestones. 
The  manse  close  by,  although  no  more  than  a  cottage,  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  brightness  of  a  flower-garden  and  the  straw  roofs 
of  bees ;  and  the  whole  colony,  kirk  and  manse,  garden  and  grave- 
yard, finds  harborage  in  a  grove  of  rowans,  and  is  all  the  year 
round  in  a  great  silence  broken  only  by  the  drone  of  the  bees,  the 
tinkle  of  the  burn,  and  the  bell  on  Sundays.  A  mile  beyond  the 
kirk  the  road  leaves  the  valley  by  a  precipitous  ascent,  and  brings 
you  a  little  after  to  the  place  of  Hermiston,  where  it  comes  to  an 
end  in  the  back-yard  before  the  coach-house.  All  beyond  and 
about  is  the  great  field  of  the  hills  ;  the  plover,  the  curlew,  and  the 
lark  cry  there;  the  wind  blows  as  it  blows  in  a  ship's  rigging, 
hard  and  cold  and  pure ;  and  the  hill-tops  huddle  one  behind  an- 
other like  a  herd  of  cattle  into  the  sunset.  —  Stevenson  :  Weir  of 
Hermiston. 

Three  ordinary  men  would  have  quarrelled  through  sheer  bore- 
dom before  they  reached  Southampton.  We,  by  virtue  of  our 
craft,  were  anything  but  ordinary  men.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
tales  of  the  world  are  common  property  coming  of  a  common 
stock.  We  told  them  all,  as  a  matter  of  form,  with  all  their  local 
and  specific  variants  which  are  surprising.  Then  came,  in  the 
intervals  of  steady  card-play,  more  personal  histories  of  adventure 
and  things  seen  and  reported  :  panics  among  white  folk,  when  the 
blind  terror  ran  from  man  to  man  on  the  Brooklyn  bridge,  and 
the  people  crushed  each  other  to  death  they  knew  not  why  ;  fires, 
and  faces  that  opened  and  shut  their  mouths  horribly  at  red-hot 
window-frames ;  wrecks  in  frost  and  snow,  reported  from  the  sleet- 
sheathed  rescue  tug  at  the  risk  of  frost-bite;  long  rides  after 
diamond  thieves ;  skirmishes  on  the  veldt  and  in  municipal  com- 
munities with  the  Boers ;  glimpses  of  lazy,  tangled  Cape  politics 
and  the  mule  rule  in  the  Transvaal ;  card-tales,  horse-tales,  woman- 
tales  by  the  score  and  the  half  hundred;  till  the  first  mate,  who 
had  seen  more  than  us  all  put  together,  but  lacked  words  to  clothe 
his  tales  with,  sat  open-mouthed  far  into  the  dawn.  —  Kipling: 
A  Matter  of  Fact  (A/any  Inventions'). 

The  statuette,  in  bronze,  something  more  than  two  feet  high, 
represented  a  naked  youth  drinking  from  a  gourd.  The  attitude 
was  perfectly  simple.  The  lad  was  squarely  planted  on  his  feet, 


78  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

with  his  legs  a  little  apart;  his  back  was  slightly  hollowed,  his 
head  thrown  back;  his  hands  were  raised  to  support  the  rustic 
cup.  There  was  a  loosened  fillet  of  wild  flowers  about  his  head, 
and  his  eyes,  under  their  drooped  lids,  looked  straight  into  the  cup. 
On  the  base  was  scratched  the  Greek  word  Aw/ro,  Thirst  The 
figure  might  have  been  some  beautiful  youth  of  ancient  fable  — 
Hylas  or  Narcissus,  Paris  or  Endymion.  Its  beauty  was  the 
beauty  of  natural  movement;  nothing  had  been  sought  to  be  rep- 
resented but  the  perfection  of  an  attitude.  This  had  been  atten- 
tively studied — it  was  exquisitely  rendered.  Rowland  demanded 
more  light,  dropped  his  head  on  this  side  and  that,  uttered  vague 
exclamations.  He  said  to  himself,  as  he  had  said  more  than  once 
in  the  Louvre  and  the  Vatican,  "  We  ugly  mortals,  what  beautiful 
creatures  we  are !  " — James:  Roderick  Hudson. 

46.  Portrait  Sketches.  —  Two  varieties  of  descriptive  par- 
agraphs merit  special  attention.  These  are  portrait  sketches 
and  character  descriptions.  The  simplest  form  of  portrai- 
ture gives  a  mere  catalogue  of  features.  A  higher  form  adds 
to  this  the  mention  of  accessories,  as  of  clothes,  and  scraps  of 
conversation.  A  still  higher  type  imputes  to  the  subject  of 
the  sketch  personal  qualities  that  put  a  meaning  into  the 
features  described — makes  the  face  tell  the  story  of  the 
life.  The  various  kinds  run  into  one  another,  and  all  may 
be  employed  in  the  same  sketch.  The  following  paragraphs 
will  illustrate:  — 

Mr.  Serjeant  Snubbin  was  a  lantern-faced,  sallow-complexioned 
man,  of  about  five-and-forty,  or  —  as  the  novels  say — he  might  be 
fifty.  He  had  that  dull-looking  boiled  eye  which  is  so  often  to  be 
seen  in  the  heads  of  people  who  have  applied  themselves  during 
many  years  to  a  weary  and  laborious  course  of  study;  and  which 
would  have  been  sufficient,  without  the  additional  eye-glass  which 
dangled  from  a  broad  black  riband  round  his  neck,  to  warn  a 
stranger  that  he  was  very  near-sighted.  His  hair  was  thin  and 
weak,  which  was  partly  attributable  to  his  having  never  devoted 
much  time  to  its  arrangement,  and  partly  to  his  having  worn  for 
five-and-twenty  years  the  forensic  wig  which  hung  on  a  block 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  79 

beside  him.  The  marks  of  hair-powder  on  his  coat-collar,  and  the 
ill-washed  and  worse-tied  white  neckerchief  round  his  throat, 
showed  that  he  had  not  found  leisure  since  he  left  the  court  to 
make  any  alteration  in  his  dress :  while  the  slovenly  style  of  the 
remainder  of  his  costume  wan-anted  the  inference  that  his  per- 
sonal appearance  would  not  have  been  very  much  improved  if  he 
had.  Books  of  practice,  heaps  of  papers,  and  open  letters  were 
scattered  over  the  table,  without  any  attempt  at  order  or  arrange- 
ment; the  furniture  of  the  room  was  old  and  rickety;  the  doors 
of  the  book-case  were  rotting  in  their  hinges;  the  dust  flew  out 
from  the  carpet  in  little  clouds  at  every  step;  the  blinds  were 
yellow  with  age  and  dirt;  and  the  state  of  everything  in  the  room 
showed,  with  a  clearness  not  to  be  mistaken,  that  Mr.  Serjeant 
Snubbin  was  far  too  much  occupied  with  his  professional  pursuits 
to  take  any  great  heed  or  regard  of  his  personal  comforts. 

—  Dickens:  Pickunck  Papers. 

To  me  it  is  a  most  touching  face;  perhaps  of  all  faces  that  I 
know,  the  most  so.  Lonely  there,  painted  as  on  vacancy,  with 
the  simple  laurel  wound  round  it,  the  deathless  sorrow  and  pain, 
the  known  victory  which  is  also  deathless;  —  significant  of  the 
whole  history  of  Dante.  I  think  it  is  the  mournfulest  face  that 
ever  was  painted  from  reality ;  an  altogether  tragic,  heart-affecting 
face.  There  is  in  it,  as  foundation  of  it,  the  softness,  tenderness, 
gentle  affection  as  of  a  child ;  but  all  this  is  as  if  congealed  into 
sharp  contradiction,  into  abnegation,  isolation,  proud  hopeless  pain. 
A  soft  ethereal  soul  looking  out  so  stern,  implacable,  grim-trench- 
ant, as  from  imprisonment  of  thick-ribbed  ice  1  Withal  it  is  a 
silent  pain  too,  a  silent  scornful  one ;  the  lip  is  curled  in  a  kind  of 
godlike  disdain  of  the  thing  that  is  eating  out  his  heart,  —  as  if  it 
were  withal  a  mean  insignificant  thing,  as  if  he  whom  it  had 
power  to  torture  and  strangle  were  greater  than  it.  The  face  of 
one  wholly  in  protest  and  life-long  unsurrendering  battle,  against 
the  world.  Affection  all  converted  into  indignation  ;  an  implacable 
indignation ;  slow,  equable,  silent,  like  that  of  a  god !  The  eye, 
too,  it  looks  out  in  a  kind  of  surprise,  a  kind  of  inquiry,  why  the 
world  was  of  such  a  sort  ?  This  is  Dante :  so  he  looks,  this  *  voice 
of  ten  silent  centuries,'  and  sings  us  '  his  mystic  unfathomable  song.' 

—  Carlyle  :  On  Heroes. 


80  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

47.  Character  Sketches. — Success  in  character  sketches 
depends  upon  the  writer's  power  to  seize  upon  the  principal 
trait  of  character  possessed  by  the  subject  of  the  sketch, 
the  predominating  characteristic,  and  to  group  other  traits 
as  the  natural  results  of  the  leading  quality,  in  the  light  of 
which  the  deeds  of  the  subject  of  the  sketch  are  to  be  ex- 
plained. Every  developed  character  has  a  central  quality 
about  which  other  traits  group  themselves.  That  we  speak 
naturally  of  Washington's  purity,  Lincoln's  honesty,  and 
Queen  Elizabeth's  versatility  is  unconscious  evidence  of 
this.  This  central  trait,  once  found,  will  furnish  the  para- 
graph theme.  Traits  should  be  illustrated  by  deeds,  events, 
and  words.  Epithet,  contrast,  and  figurative  language 
tend  to  make  a  character  portrayal  vivid  and  effective. 
The  following  paragraph  on  the  character  of  James  I.,  from 
Green's  History  of  the  English  People,  Vol.  III.,  p.  55,  will 
illustrate  all  these  points  : 

[Introductory]  On  the  sixth  of  May,  1603,  after  a  stately  prog- 
ress through  his  new  dominions,  King  James  entered  London.  [Por- 
trait] In  outer  appearance  no  sovereign  could  have  jarred  more 
utterly  against  the  conception  of  an  English  ruler  which  had  grown 
up  under  Plantagenet  or  Tudor.  His  big  head,  his  slobbering  tongue, 
his  quilted  clothes,  his  rickety  legs,  stood  out  in  as  grotesque  a  con- 
trast with  all  that  men  recalled  of  Henry  or  Elizabeth  as  his  gabble 
and  rhodomontade,  his  want  of  personal  dignity,  his  buffoonery,  his 
coarsenessof  speech,  his  pedantry,  his  personal  cowardice.  [Charac- 
ter contrasted  with  portrait]  Under  this  ridiculous  exterior  indeed 
lay  no  small  amount  of  moral  courage  and  of  intellectual  dignity. 
James  was  a  ripe  scholar,  with  a  considerable  fund  of  shrewdness,  of 
mother  wit,  and  ready  repartee.  His  canny  humor  lights  up  the 
political  and  theological  controversies  of  the  time  with  quaint  inci- 
sive phrases,  with  puns  and  epigrams  and  touches  of  irony  which  still 
retain  their  savor.  His  reading,  especially  in  theological  matters, 
was  extensive  ;  and  he  was  already  a  voluminous  author  on  subjects 
which  ranged  from  predestination  to  tobacco.  [Statement  of  the  cen- 
tral quality  —  a  confirmed  pedantry]  But  his  shrewdness  and  learn- 


TYPES  OF  PARAGRAPH  STRUCTURE.  81 

ing  only  left  him,  in  the  phrase  of  Henry  the  Fourth  of  France,  "  the 
wisest  fool  in  Christendom."  He  had,  in  fact,  the  temper  of  a  pedant, 
a  pedant's  conceit,  a  pedant's  love  of  theories,  and  a  pedant's  inabil- 
ity .to  bring  his  theories  into  any  relation  with  actual  facts.  It  was 
this  fatal  defect  that  marred  his  political  abilities.  As  a  statesman 
he  had  shown  no  little  capacity  in  his  smaller  realm ;  his  cool  hu- 
mor and  good  temper  had  held  even  Melville  at  bay ;  he  had  known 
how  to  wait  and  how  to  strike ;  and  his  patience  and  boldness  had 
been  rewarded  with  a  fair  success.  He  had  studied  foreign  affairs 
as  busily  as  he  had  studied  Scotch  affairs;  and  of  the  temper  and 
plans  of  foreign  courts  he  probably  possessed  a  greater  knowledge 
than  any  Englishman  save  Robert  Cecil.  But  what  he  never  pos- 
sessed, and  what  he  never  could  gain,  was  any  sort  of  knowledge  of 
England  or  Englishmen.  Pie  came  to  his  new  home  a  Scotchman,  a 
foreigner,  strange  to  the  life,  the  thoughts,  the  traditions  of  the  Eng- 
lish people.  And  he  remained  strange  to  them  to  the  last.  A 
younger  man  might  have  insensibly  imbibed  the  temper  of  the  men 
about  him.  A  man  of  genius  would  have  flung  himself  into  the  new 
world  of  thought  and  feeling  and  made  it  his  own.  But  James  was 
neither  young  nor  a  man  of  genius.  He  was  already  in  middle  age 
when  he  crossed  the  Border;  and  his  cleverness  and  his  conceit 
alike  blinded  him  to  the  need  of  any  adjustment  of  his  conclusions 
or  his  prejudices  to  the  facts  which  fronted  him. 


PART  II. 

WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

48.  Related  Paragraphs. — Each  of  the  paragraphs  ex- 
amined thus  far  in  our  study  has  been  treated  as  a  complete 
composition  in  itself ;  we  have  considered  its  nature,  laws, 
means  of  development,  and  type  of  structure.  Having  thus 
been  led,  through  exercises  in  the  writing  of  single  paragraphs 
and  a  study  of  paragraph  structure,  to  a  knowledge  of 
rhetorical  forms  and  functions,  we  are  now  prepared  to  un- 
dertake the  composition  of  those  groups  or  series  of  para- 
graphs which  are  called  essays,  themes,  or  whole  compositions. 

To  the  paragraphs  which,  taken  together,  form  a  complete 
essay,  we  may,  for  convenience,  apply  the  term  related 
paragraphs.  In  most  of  them  the  structure  is  not  materially 
different  from  that  which  has  been  discovered  in  one  or  another 
of  the  various  forms  of  the  isolated  paragraph.  Like  the 
isolated  paragraph,  most  related  paragraphs  have  distinct 
topic-statements  which  are  developed  in  one  or  more  of  the 
ways  already  pointed  out ;  the  topic-statements,  in  the  case  of 
related  paragraphs,  introducing  in  turn  the  various  headings 
and  subheadings  of  the  essay-outline.  There  are  a  few 
special  kinds  of  related  paragraphs,  however,  so  different  in 
form  and  function  from  any  of  the  isolated  paragraphs 
studied,  that  they  require  notice  and  illustration  at  the  out- 
set. What  these  forms  are  will  appear  from  a  comparison 
of  the  functions  of  the  various  sentences  in  an  isolated 
paragraph  with  those  of  the  various  paragraphs  in  an  essay. 


RELATED  PARAGRAPHS.  83 


A.  SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS. 

49.  Regarded  as  sections  of  a  whole  composition,  the  va- 
rious paragraphs  have  different  functions  to  perform  analo- 
gous to  those  performed  by  the  different  sentences  of  the 
paragraph.  As  the  subject  sentence  of  a  paragraph  states  the 
paragraph  theme,  so  the  introductory  paragraph  of  an  essay 
presents,  more  or  less  distinctly,  the  theme  of  the  essay. 
As  transition  words  and  sentences  may  be  necessary,  some- 
times, to  connect  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph,  so  transition 
paragraphs  may  be  needed  at  focal  points  in  the  essay  to  con- 
nect the  paragraphs  of  the  essay.     Some  words  like  but,  yet, 
still,  however,  presenting  a  contrast,  serve  in  a  paragraph  to 
arrest  the  thought  and  direct   it  into  a  different  channel. 
There  are  paragraphs  that  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the 
essay.     A  sentence  may   be  devoted  wholly  to  restricting, 
defining,  repeating,  amplifying,  illustrating,  or  enforcing  an 
idea  set  forth  in  a  previous  sentence.     So  in  an  essay  whole 
paragraphs  may  be  employed  for  restricting,  defining,  re- 
peating, amplifying,  illustrating,  or  enforcing  the  idea  of  a 
preceding  paragraph.     As  there  are  certain  expressions  at 
important  points  in  a  paragraph  to  carry  the  thought  back 
to  the  subject  sentence,  so  there  may  be  paragraphs  in  an 
essay  that  show  the  bearing  of  the  thought  of  contiguous 
paragraphs  upon  the  main  idea  of  the  essay.     Of  course 
these  functions  vary  in  different  kinds  of  compositions,  since 
the  paragraphs  are  colored  by  the  nature  of  the  piece   as  a 
whole.     In  a  given  essay  some  may  be  absent  entirely,  not 
being  needed  for  the  kind  of  production  in  hand,  just  as  in 
a  given  paragraph  some  of  the  means  of  development  are 
absent.     A  few  of  these  functions  will  be  indicated   and 
illustrated. 

50.  Introductory  and  Concluding  Paragraphs.  —  The  ob- 
ject of  an  introductory  paragraph  is  to  segregate  the  ideas 


84  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

of  the  composition  in  hand  from  all  other  ideas.  As  this  is 
nearly  always  apparent  from  a  mere  statement  of  the  theme, 
the  introduction  usually  needs  to  do  little  more  than  state  the 
theme,  and  indicate  briefly  the  line  of  development  to  be 
followed. 

The  main  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  examine  the  lines  and  pro- 
ductions of  such  British  poets  as  have  gained  reputation  within 
the  last  forty  years.  Incidentally,  I  hope  to  derive  from  the  body 
of  their  verse,  —  so  various  in  form  and  thought,  —  and  from  the 
record  of  their  different  experiences,  correct  ideas  in  respect  to  the 
aim  and  province  of  the  art  of  poetry,  and  not  a  few  striking  illus- 
trations of  the  poetic  life.  —  E.  C.  Stedman  :  Victorian  Poets. 

In  a  longer  introduction  the  writer  may  set  forth  broadly 
the  limits  and  purpose  of  the  essay,  chapter,  or  book:  — 

Of  those  who  in  August,  1806,  read  in  the  English  newspapers  that 
the  Emperor  Francis  II  had  announced  to  the  Diet  his  resignation 
of  the  imperial  crown,  there  were  probably  few  who  reflected  that 
the  oldest  political  institution  in  the  world  had  come  to  an  end. 
Yet  it  was  so.  The  Empire  which  a  note  issued  by  a  diplomat  on 
the  banks  of  the  Danube  extinguished,  was  the  same  which  tin- 
crafty  nephew  of  Julius  had  won  for  himself,  against  the  powers  of 
the  East,  beneath  the  cliffs  of  Actium ;  and  which  had  preserved 
almost  unaltered,  through  eighteen  centuries  of  time,  and  through 
the  greatest  changes  in  extent,  in  power,  in  character,  a  title  and 
pretensions  from  which  all  meaning  had  long  since  departed. 
Nothing  else  so  directly  linked  the  old  world  to  the  new  —  nothing 
else  displayed  so  many  strange  contrasts  of  the  present  and  the 
past,  and  summed  up  in  those  contrasts  so  much  of  European 
history.  From  the  days  of  Constantino  till  far  down  into  the 
middle  ages  it  was,  conjointly  with  the  Papacy,  the  recognized  head 
and  centre  of  Christendom,  exercising  over  the  minds  of  men  an 
influence  such  as  its  material  strength  could  never  have  commanded. 
It  is  of  this  influence  and  of  the  causes  that  gave  it  power,  rather 
than  the  external  history  of  the  Empire,  that  the  following  pages 
are  designed  to  treat.  —  Bryce :  The  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

I  purpose  to  write  the  history  of  England  from  the  accession  of 
King  James  the  Second  down  to  a  time  which  is  within  the  memory 


RELATED  PARAGRAPHS.  85 

of  men  still  living.  I  shall  recount  the  errors  which,  in  a  few 
months,  alienated  a  loyal  gentry  and  priesthood  from  the  House 
of  Stuart.  I  shall  trace  the  course  of  that  revolution  which  termi- 
nated the  long  struggle  between  our  sovereigns  and  their  parlia- 
ments, and  bound  up  together  the  rights  of  the  people  and  the  title 
of  the  reigning  dynasty.  I  shall  relate  how  the  new  settlement  was, 
during  many  troubled  years,  successfully  defended  against  foreign 
and  domestic  enemies ;  how,  under  that  settlement,  the  authority 
of  law  and  the  security  of  property  were  found  to  be  compatible 
with  a  liberty  of  discussion  and  of  individual  action  never  before 
known;  how,  from  the  suspicious  union  of  order  and  freedom, 
sprang  a  prosperity  of  which  the  annals  of  human  affairs  had  fur- 
nished no  example ;  how  our  country,  from  a  State  of  ignominious 
vassalage,  rapidly  rose  to  the  place  of  empire  among  European 
powers ;  how  her  opulence  and  her  martial  glory  grew  together ; 
how,  by  wise  and  resolute  good  faith,  was  gradually  established  a 
public  credit  fruitful  of  marvels  which  to  the  statesmen  of  any 
former  age  would  have  seemed  incredible;  how  a  gigantic  com- 
merce gave  birth  to  a  maritime  power,  compared  with  which  every 
other  maritime  power,  ancient  or  modern,  sinks  into  insignificance ; 
how  Scotland,  after  ages  of  enmity,  was  at  length  united  to  Eng- 
land, not  merely  by  legal  bonds,  but  by  indissoluble  ties  of  interest 
and  affection  ;  how,  in  America,  the  British  colonies  rapidly  became 
far  mightier  and  wealthier  than  the  realms  which  Cortez  and  Pizarro 
had  added  to  the  dominions  of  Charles  the  Fifth ;  how,  in  Asia, 
British  adventurers  founded  an  empire  not  less  splendid  and  more 
durable  than  that  of  Alexander.  —  Macaulay :  History  of  England. 

A  methodical  writer  will  indicate  in  the  introduction  the 
order  of  the  topics  under  which  the  subject  is  to  be  treated. 
This  may  be  done  formally  by  enumerating  the  topics,  as  in 
the  following :  — 

The  National  government  touches  the  States  as  corporate  com- 
monwealths in  three  points.  One  is  their  function  in  helping  to 
form  the  National  government,  another  is  the  control  exercised 
over  them  by  the  Federal  Constitution  through  the  Federal  courts; 
the  third  is  the  control  exercised  over  them  by  the  Federal  Legis- 
lature and  Executive  in  the  discharge  of  the  governing  functions 


86  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

which  these  latter  authorities  possess.  —  Bryce  :  American  Common- 
wealth, Vol.  I.,  chap,  xxviii. 

A  more  informal  mode  of  indicating  the  order  of  topics  is 
seen  in  the  following :  — 

[The  subject  of  the  section  from  which  the  following  paragraph 
is  taken  is  "  Political  Institutions  of  Germany."  The  marginal 
note  gives  as  the  subject  of  this  paragraph,  "  Want  of  National  In- 
stitutions in  Germany."] 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries  that,  [Subject  of  section]  with  most  of  the  condi- 
tions requisite  for  the  formation  of  national  unity,  [Subject  of 
paragraph]  she  had  no  really  national  institutions.  There  was 
[Subjects  of  sections  and  paragraphs  to  follow]  an  Emperor,  who 
looked  something  like  an  English  King,  and  a  Diet,  or  General 
Assembly,  which  looked  something  like  an  English  Parliament, 
but  [Subject  of  paragraph  repeated]  the  resemblance  was  far 
greater  in  appearance  than  in  reality.  —  Gardiner:  Thirty  Years' 
War,  p.  1. 

In  a  description,  the  introduction  frequently  gives  the 
total  impression  produced  by  the  object  described.  A 
narrative  introduction  usually  requires  nothing  more  than 
the  place  and  time  of  the  story.  A  newspaper  article  nar- 
rating an  important  series  of  events  usually  employs  the  in- 
troductory paragraph  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  summary 
of  the  events  detailed  at  length  in  the  succeeding  portions. 
In  such  an  article,  the  introduction  tells  the  whole  story  in 
brief,  the  remaining  paragraphs  being  arranged  in  the  order 
of  decreasing  importance.  The  following  is  an  illustration 
of  a  news  article  introduced  in  this  way  :  — 

Another  attempt  was  made  to-day  to  assassinate  the  Shah.  While 
he  was  driving  in  a  narrow  street  a  bomb  was  thrown  from  a  house- 
top, striking  near  a  motor  car  preceding  the  Shah's  carriage, 
which  was  some  distance  behind.  The  Shah  was  uninjured. 

The  chauffeur  of  the  motor  car  and  about  twenty  others  were 
wounded.  The  Shah  alighted  from  his  carriage  and  entered  the 
nearest  house,  which  was  shortly  afterward  surrounded  by  guards. 


BELATED  PARAGRAPHS.  87 

His  Majesty  after  a  while  left  the  house  and  proceeded  to  the 
palace. 

A  search  of  the  house  from  the  roof  of  which  the  bomb  was 
thrown  proved  fruitless.  No  suspicious  characters  were  found. 

It  is  known  that  twelve  persons  were  killed,  besides  some  horses. 
A  number  of  windows  were  smashed  by  the  force  of  the  explosion. 
Immediately  after  the  bomb  was  thrown  the  tribal  cavalry,  who 
were  escorting  the  Shah,  broke  ranks  and  fired  in  all  directions. 
The  Shah  returned  to  the  palace  on  foot. 

The  concluding  paragraph  —  except  in  the  peculiar  case 
of  the  newspaper  narrative — should  gather  into  itself  the 
force  of  all  the  preceding  paragraphs.  The  effort  should 
be  to  leave  a  strong  impression.  It  is  no  place  for  digres- 
sions, but  must  be  in  line  with  what  has  been  said  before. 

A  great  deal  must  be  allowed  to  Pope  for  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  and  not  a  little,  I  think,  for  the  influence  of  Swift.  In  his 
own  province  he  still  stands  unapproachably  alone.  [Enumeration 
of  points  made  in  the  essay]  If  to  be  the  greatest  satirist  of  individ- 
ual men,  rather  than  of  human  nature,  if  to  be  the  highest  expres- 
sion which  the  life  of  the  court  and  the  ball-room  has  ever  found 
in  verse,  if  to  have  added  more  phrases  to  our  language  than  any 
other  but  Shakespeare,  if  to  have  charmed  four  generations  make 
a  man  a  great  poet  —  then  he  is  one.  He  was  the  chief  founder 
of  an  artificial  style  of  writing,  which  in  his  hands  was  living 
and  powerful,  because  he  used  it  to  express  artificial  modes  of 
thinking  and  an  artificial  state  of  society.  Measured  by  any  high 
standard  of  imagination,  he  will  be  found  wanting  ;  tried  by  any 
test  of  wit  he  is  unrivalled.  —  Lowell :  My  Study  Windows. 

In  the  following  partial  conclusion  from  Matthew  Arnold's 
Preface  to  Wordsworth's  Poems,  the  theme  which  was  pro- 
posed at  the  beginning  of  the  essay  is  repeated  and  en- 
forced :  — 

On  the  whole,  then,  as  I  said  at  the  beginning,  not  only  is  Words- 
worth eminent  by  reason  of  the  goodness  of  his  best  work,  but  he 
is  eminent  also  by  reason  of  the  great  body  of  good  work  which 
he  has  left  to  us.  With  the  ancients  I  will  not  compare  him.  In 


88  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

many  respects  the  ancients  are  far  above  us,  and  yet  there  is  some- 
thing that  we  demand  which  they  can  never  give.  Leaving  the 
ancients,  let  us  come  to  the  poets  and  the  poetry  of  Christendom. 
Dante,  Shakespeare,  Moliere,  Milton,  Goethe,  are  altogether  larger 
and  more  splendid  luminaries  in  the  poetical  heaven  than  Words- 
worth. But  I  know  not  where  else,  among  the  moderns,  we  are  to 
find  his  superiors. 

51.  Transitional  and  Directive  Paragraphs. — Transi- 
tional and  directive  paragraphs  serve  to  make  plain  the 
logical  connection  between  the  main  topics  of  the  discourse 
and  to  direct  the  thought  both  to  the  subject  of  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  and  to  that  of  the  following  paragraph. 
Transitional  paragraphs  have,  therefore,  two  offices  to  per- 
form. There  must  be  the  "  backward  look  "  to  the  subject 
that  precedes,  and  the  "  forward  look"  to  the  subject  that 
follows.  The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate :  — 

[In  a  preceding  paragraph  the  author  has  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  Confucius  is  worthy  of  high  respect.  This  idea  is  re- 
peated in  the  opening  sentence.]  Confucius  belongs  to  that  small 
company  of  select  ones  whose  lives  have  been  devoted  to  the  moral 
elevation  of  their  fellow-men.  Among  them  he  stands  high.  For 
[Transition  to  new  subject]  he  sought  to  implant  the  purest  prin- 
ciples of  religion  and  morals  in  the  character  of  the  whole  people, 
and  succeeded  in  doing  it.  To  show  that  this  was  his  purpose 
[Subject  of  next  paragraph  definitely  stated]  it  will  be  necessary 
to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  his  life.  —  Clarke :  Ten  Great  Religions. 

[Shelley  (Defence  of  Poetry)  has  just  shown  that  the  highest 
pleasure  is  linked  with  pain.] 

The  production  and  assurance  of  pleasure  in  this  highest  sense 
is  true  utility.  Those  who  produce  and  preserve  this  pleasure  are 
poets  or  poetical  philosophers.  [In  the  next  paragraph  they  are 
named.] 

A  second  reason  which  lends  an  emphasis  of  novelty  and  effec- 
tive power  to  Shakespeare's  female  world  is  a  peculiar  fact  of  con- 
trast which  exists  between  that  and  his  corresponding  world  of 


RELATED  PARAGRAPHS.  89 

men.     Let  us  explain.  —  De  Quincey :  Biographies.     [The  remain- 
der of  the  paragraph  is  occupied  with  the  explanation.] 

We  have  hitherto  been  examining  cases  proposed  by  our  oppo- 
nent. It  is  now  our  turn  to  propose  one,  and  we  beg  he  will  spare 
no  wisdom  in  solving  it.  —  Macaulay  :  Utilitarian  Theory  of  Gov- 
ernment. [In  the  next  paragraph  the  case  is  stated.] 

A  sudden  change  of  subject,  or  a  turn  in  the  argument 
which  the  reader  could  not  be  expected  to  anticipate,  re- 
quires a  carefully  worded  directive  paragraph. 

The  very  great  length  to  which  this  article  has  already  been 
extended  makes  it  impossible  for  us  to  discuss,  as  we  had  meant  to 
do,  the  characters  and  conduct  of  the  leading  English  statesmen 
at  this  crisis.  But  we  must  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  spirit  and 
tendency  of  the  Revolution  of  1688.  —  Macaulay :  Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh's History  of  the  Revolution. 

52.  Amplifying  Paragraphs.  —  It  is  often  the  case  that  a 
thought  which  bears  directly  on  the  subject,  but  which  can 
be  mentioned  only  briefly  in  one  paragraph,  is  of  sufficient 
importance  to  deserve  a  more  extended  treatment.  To  give 
it  such  treatment  in  the  paragraph  in  which  it  is  first 
mentioned  might  destroy  the  unity  and  due  proportion  of 
that  paragraph.  In  such  a  case  it  is  better  to  develop  the 
thought,  in  detail,  in  the  paragraph  immediately  following. 
Separate  treatment  of  this  kind  will  permit  the  reader  to 
dwell  upon  the  thought  thus  amplified,  long  enough  for  him 
to  appreciate  its  bearing  and  importance.  The  amplifying 
paragraph  is  of  especial  value  in  enforcing  an  idea  in  a  par- 
ticular way  and  in  making  it  contribute  to  the  main  purpose 
of  the  composition.  Often  an  amplifying  paragraph  con- 
sists of  details  which  enforce  or  illustrate  the  idea  of  the 
preceding  paragraph  as  a  whole.  The  following  are  in 
point :  — 

Lord  Bolingbroke,  in  his  Study  of  History,  announces,  in 
one  paragraph,  the  fact  that  history  widens  our  experience 


90  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

and   corrects  our  narrowness.     In  the  next  paragraph  he 
amplifies  this  idea  by  means  of  examples,  as  follows :  — 

Let  me  explain  what  I  mean  by  an  example.  There  is  scarce 
any  folly  or  vice  more  epidemical  among  the  sons  of  men  than  that 
ridiculous  and  hurtful  vanity  by  which  the  people  of  each  country 
are  apt  to  prefer  themselves  to  those  of  every  other;  and  to  make 
their  own  customs,  and  manners,  and  opinions,  the  standards  of 
right  and  wrong,  of  true  and  false.  The  Chinese  mandarins  were 
strangely  surprised,  and  almost  incredulous,  when  the  Jesuits 
showed  them  how  small  a  figure  their  empire  made  in  the  general 
map  of  the  world.  The  Samojedes  wondered  much  at  the  Czar  of 
Muscovy  for  not  living  among  them ;  .  .  .  now  nothing  can  con- 
tribute more  to  prevent  us  from  being  tainted  with  this  vanity 
than  to  accustom  ourselves  early  to  contemplate  the  different  na- 
tions of  the  earth  in  that  vast  map  which  history  spreads  before 
us  ...  I  might  show  by  a  multitude  of  other  examples  how 
history  prepares  us  for  experience  and  guides  us  in  it  ...  I 
might  likewise  bring  several  other  instances  wherein  history  serves 
to  purge  the  mind  of  those  national  partialities  and  prejudices 
that  we  are  apt  to  contract  in  our  education.  —  Bolingbroke  : 
Of  the  Study  of  History,  Letter  ii. 

The  following  amplifies  a  thought  suggested,  though  not 
explicitly  stated,  in  preceding  paragraphs  of  the  book :  — 

What  may  we  imagine  his  own  feeling  to  have  been  in  this 
crisis  of  his  fate?  The  thought  of  Edinburgh  society  would  natu- 
rally stir  that  ambition  which  was  strong  within  him,  and  awaken 
a  desire  to  meet  the  men  who  were  praising  him  in  the  capital,  and 
to  try  his  powers  in  that  wide  arena.  It  might  be  that  in  that  new 
scene  something  might  occur  which  would  reverse  the  current  of  his 
fortunes,  and  set  him  free  from  the  crushing  poverty  that  had  hith- 
erto kept  him  down.  Anyhow,  he  was  conscious  of  strong  powers 
which  fitted  him  to  shine,  not  in  poetry  only,  but  in  conversation 
and  discussion  ;  and,  ploughman  though  he  was,  he  did  not  shrink 
from  encountering  any  man  or  any  set  of  men.  Proud,  too,  we  know 
he  was,  and  his  pride  showed  itself  in  jealousy  and  suspicion  of 
the  classes  who  were  socially  above  him,  until  such  feelings  were 
melted  by  kindly  intercourse  with  some  individual  man  belonging 


TYPES  OF  COMPOSITION.  91 

to  the  suspected  orders.  He  felt  himself  to  surpass  in  natural 
powers  those  who  were  his  superiors  in  rank  and  fortune,  and  he 
could  not,  for  the  life  of  him,  see  why  they  should  be  full  of  this 
world's  goods,  while  he  had  none  of  them.  He  had  not  yet  learned 
—  he  never  did  learn — that  lesson,  that  the  genius  he  had  received 
was  his  allotted  portion,  and  that  his  wisdom  lay  in  making  the 
most  of  this  rare  inward  gift,  even  on  a  meagre  allowance  of  the 
world's  external  goods.  But  perhaps,  whether  he  knew  it  or  not, 
the  greatest  attraction  of  the  capital  was  that  in  that  new  excite- 
ment he  might  escape  from  the  demons  of  remorse  and  despair 
which  had  for  many  months  been  dogging  him.  He  may  have 
fancied  this,  but  the  pangs  which  Burns  had  created  for  himself 
were  too  deep  to  be  in  this  way  permanently  put  by.  —  Shairp  : 
Robert  Burns. 


B.  TYPES   OF  WHOLE   COMPOSITION. 

53.  In  our  further  study  attention  will  be  concentrated 
not  upon  the  individual  paragraph  but  upon  the  whole  essay. 
This  change  in  the  object  of  attention  necessitates  a  corre- 
sponding change  in  our  method  of  presenting  the  subject. 
Beginning  with  the  usual  division  of  discourse,  we  shall  take 
up  in  turn  the  various  types  of  whole  composition,  pointing 
out,  in  the  case  of  each,  those  principles  and  cautions  which 
have  been  found  most  useful  in  actual  writing. 

Four  principal  types  of  whole  composition  may  be  dis- 
tinguished, the  characteristic  differences  of  each  arising  from 
differences  in  the  aim  of  the  writer  and  his  resulting  method 
of  treating  the  subject.  If  his  aim  is  to  present  a  picture 
or  a  succession  of  pictures  or  impressions  made  on  the  senses, 
the  resulting  type  of  composition  is  called  description.  If 
his  aim  is  to  present  action  in  a  series  of  incidents,  the  re- 
sulting type  is  narrative.  If  his  aim  is  to  explain,  or  to  set 
forth  the  meaning  of  things  as  distinguished  from  their  out- 
ward appearance,  the  resulting  type  is  exposition.  Finally, 
if  his  aim  is  to  convince,  that  is,  to  establish  in  the  mind  of 


'.i-'  DESCRIPTION. 

another  a  belief  which  exists  in  his  own  mind,  the  resulting 
type  is  argument.  A  fifth  type,  persuasion,  is  sometimes  dis- 
tinguished. It  is  to  be  regarded  as  arising  from  the  writer's 
attempt  to  make  others  act  in  the  way  he  wishes  them  to  act. 
In  this  book  persuasion  is  treated  in  connection  with  argu- 
mentation. 

The  four  main  types  occur  sometimes  in  the  pure  form, 
sometimes  commingled.  A  composition  which  as  a  whole 
is  narrative,  may  contain,  and  generally  does  contain,  es- 
pecially if  it  is  long,  a  great  deal  of  description,  more  or  less 
exposition,  and  not  infrequently  passages  of  argument.  Both 
description  and  narrative  may  be  used  for  expository  pur- 
poses, and  argument,  as  in  a  lawyer's  plea  for  the  conviction 
of  a  criminal,  may  be  thrown  into  the  form  of  a  story.  Be- 
tween exposition  and  argument  it  is  often  hard  to  distinguish, 
for  we  may  not  be  able  to  determine  until  the  end  of  the 
composition  is  reached,  whether  the  writer's  purpose  was 
to  bring  about  a  change  of  opinion  or  merely  to  expound  a 
principle,  or  set  of  facts,  the  truth  of  which  is  taken  for 
granted.  It  may  even  happen  that  what  is  exposition  for 
one  reader  is  argument  for  another ;  Bryce's  American  Com- 
monwealth, for  example,  is  for  Americans  an  exposition  of 
self-evident  truths,  but  for  many  Englishmen  it  is  a  more  or 
less  convincing  argument. 

Description. 

54.  The  purpose  of  descriptive  writing  is  by  means  of 
language  to  arouse  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  an  image  or  a 
series  of  images  corresponding  as  nearly  as  possible  to  an  image 
or  a  series  of  images  in  the  mind  of  the  writer. 

\\  ••  commonly  speak  of  these  mental  images  as  pictures, 
because  they  usually  take  that  form ;  but  there  are  images 
of  sounds,  smells,  tastes,  touches,  and  muscular  strains,  as 
well  as  of  things  seen.  Thus  in  the  following  passage, 


DESCEIPTION.  93 

although  the  images  are  mainly  those  which  are  derived 
from  the  sense  of  sight,  there  are  also  '  pictures '  of  sounds, 
smells,  and  sensations  of  shock  :  — 

His  voice  rang  out  like  the  blast  of  a  warning  trumpet  between 
the  iron  walls  of  the  engine-room.  Painted  white,  they  rose  high 
into  the  dusk  of  the  skylight,  sloping  like  a  roof ;  and  the  whole 
lofty  space  resembled  a  chamber  in  a  monument,  divided  by  floors 
of  iron  grating,  with  lights  flickering  at  different  levels,  and  the 
still  gloom  within  the  columnar  stir  of  machinery  under  the  motion- 
less swelling  of  the  cylinders.  A  loud  and  wild  resonance,  made 
up  of  all  the  noises  of  the  hurricane,  dwelt  in  the  still  warmth  of 
the  air.  There  was  in  it  the  smell  of  hot  metal,  of  oil,  and  a  slight 
mist  of  steam.  The  blows  of  the  sea  seemed  to  traverse  it,  in  an 
unringing,  stunning  shock,  from  side  to  side. 

Gleams,  like  pale,  long  flames,  trembled  upon  the  polish  of 
metal,  from  the  flooring  below  the  enormous  crank-heads  emerged 
in  their  turns  with  a  flash  of  brass  and  steel  —  going  over;  while 
the  connecting  rods,  big-jointed,  like  skeleton  limbs,  seemed  to 
thrust  them  down  and  pull  them  up  again  with  an  irresistible 
precision.  And  deep  in  the  half-light  other  rods  dodged  to  and 
fro,  crossheads  nodded  quickly,  disks  of  metal  rubbed  against  each 
other,  swift  and  gentle  in  a  commingling  of  shadows  and  gleams. 
—  Joseph  Conrad :  Typhoon,  pp.  135-136. 

The  mind  of  the  reader  is  full  of  images  drawn  from  his 
own  experience,  which  are  quick  to  arise  whenever  his 
memory  or  his  imagination  is  set  going.  If  the  writer  can 
touch  the  right  springs,  can  use,  that  is,  the  words  which 
will  call  up  the  right  images  in  the  right  order,  his  descrip- 
tion will  be  successful.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  through 
carelessness  or  inexpertness,  he  uses  the  wrong  words,  or 
uses  them  in  the  wrong  order,  images  which  are  unlike  his 
own  will  arise  in  the  reader's  mind  and  the  result  will  be 
confusion,  or  a  picture  which,  as  a  whole,  is  different  from 
that  in  his  own  mind.  To  arouse  the  right  images,  to  keep 
back  the  wrong  images  is,  then,  the  twofold  task  of  the 
writer  of  description. 


94  DESCRIPTION. 

The  main  requisite  to  good  description  is  that  the  writer 
should  see  in  his  mind's  eye  with  the  utmost  clearness  the 
thing  he  is  to  describe,  for  it  needs  no  demonstration  that 
what  he  sees  only  vaguely  himself  he  cannot  by  his  words 
make  others  see  clearly.  Sharp,  inquiring  observation, 
careful  noting  of  details,  verification  of  matters  about  which 
there  is  question —  these  are  the  essential  preliminaries  to  all 
good  description.  The  advantage  is  evident,  therefore,  of 
selecting  objects  for  description  which  the  writer  has  him- 
self seen,  mental  states  which  he  has  himself  experienced, 
characters  with  which  he  has  himself  been  brought  in 
contact.  Objects  and  characters  close  at  hand  afford  the 
best  material  for  description.  A  room,  a  scene,  a  face,  a  pic- 
ture, a  building,  well  known  to  the  describer,  furnish  better 
subjects  than  similar  themes  taken  from  history  or  reported 
at  second  hand.  The  notable  descriptive  passages  in  the 
works  of  famous  writers  are,  as  a  rule,  based  upon  notes 
taken  while  the  observer  was  face  to  face  with  the  object 
to  be  described.  "  Willows  don't  hang  so  low  as  you  seem 
to  think,"  said  the  Dominie  in  Sentimental  Tommy  to  his 
pupil.  "  Yes,  they  do,"  replied  Tommy.  "  I  walked  three 
miles  to  see  one  to  make  sure." 


55.  Method  in  Description.  —  To  arouse  in  the  mind  of 
the  reader  the  images  which  are  in  the  writer's  mind  and 
to  keep  out  intruding  images  which  would  distort  and  con- 
fuse the  picture,  certain  methods  of  procedure  have  been 
found  useful.  These  may  be  grouped  under  the  following 
heads :  (1)  having  a  single  purpose,  (2)  maintaining  a  point 
of  view,  (3)  following  a  definite  and  natural  outline,  (4)  select- 
ing details  in  accordance  with  the  purpose  of  the  description, 
(5)  arranging  and  subordinating  the  details,  (6)  choosing 
appropriate  terms,  phrases,  and  other  helps  to  vivid  pres- 
entation. 


PURPOSE  IN  DESCRIPTION.  95 

56.  Purpose.  —  By  giving  to  the  description  a  definite 
purpose,  the  describer  keeps  the  reader's  attention  within  a 
well-marked  channel.  The  description  moves,  as  it  were, 
along  a  straight  path  to  a  predetermined  goal,  and  images 
which  might  otherwise  obtrude  themselves  and  spoil  the 
picture  are  by  this  means  held  back,  while  the  appropriate 
images  which  assist  in  carrying  out  the  purpose  come  for- 
ward of  themselves. 

But  although  every  descriptive  essay  should  have  a  pur- 
pose, this  purpose  need  not  be  directly  expressed.  If  ex- 
pressed at  all,  it  will  usually  be  in  the  conclusion  of  the 
essay.  The  purpose  may  be  merely  to  convey  information ; 
yet  even  here  it  will  be  information  to  a  certain  end}  and  the 
whole  description  will  show  what  the  end  is.  A  poet  and  a 
naturalist  will  describe  a  scene  in  different  ways.  Compare 
the  following  passages  :  — 

To  the  northwest,  Dorth  and  east  of  the  village,  is  a  range  of 
fair  enclosures,  consisting  of  what  is  called  a  white  malm,  a  sort 
of  rotten  or  rubble  stone,  which,  when  turned  up  to  the  frost  and 
rain,  moulders  to  pieces,  and  becomes  manure  to  itself. 

Still  on  to  the  northeast,  and  a  step  lower,  is  a  kind  of  white 
land,  neither  chalk  nor  clay,  neither  fit  for  pasture  nor  for  the 
plough,  yet  kindly  for  hops,  which  root  deep  into  the  freestone,  and 
have  their  poles  and  wood  for  charcoal  growing  just  at  hand.  The 
white  soil  produces  the  brightest  hops. 

As  the  parish  still  inclines  down  towards  Wolmer  Forest,  at  the 
juncture  of  the  clays  and  sand  the  soil  becomes  a  wet,  sandy  loam, 
remarkable  for  timber,  and  infamous  for  roads.  The  oaks  of 
Temple  and  Blackmoor  stand  high  in  the  estimation  o£  purveyors, 
and  have  furnished  much  naval  timber;  while  the  trees  on  the 
freestone  grow  large,  but  are  what  workmen  call  shaky,  and  so 
brittle  as  often  to  fall  to  pieces  in  sawing.  Beyond  the  sandy 
loam  the  soil  becomes  a  hungry,  lean  sand,  till  it  mingles  with  the 
forest;  and  will  produce  little  without  the  assistance  of  lime  and 
turnips.  —  Gilbert  White :  The  Parish  of  Selborne. 

What  is  it  I  see  from  my  low  hills  ?  It  is  an  enchanted  land 
for  me,  and  I  lose  myself  in  wondering  how  it  is  that  no  one,  poet 


96  DESCRIPTION. 

or  artist,  has  ever  wholly  found  out  the  charm  of  these  level 
plains,  with  their  rich  black  soil,  their  straight  dikes,  their  great 
drift-roads,  that  run  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  into  the  unvisited 
fen.  In  summer  it  is  a  feast  of  the  richest  green  from  verge  to 
verge ;  here  a  clump  of  trees  stands  up,  almost  of  the  hue  of  indigo, 
surrounding  a  lonely  shepherd's  cote ;  a  distant  church  rises,  a  dark 
tower  over  the  hamlet  elms;  far  beyond,  I  see  low  wolds,  streaked  and 
dappled  by  copse  and  wood ;  far  to  the  south,  I  see  the  towers  and 
spires  of  Cambridge,  as  of  some  spiritual  city  —  the  smoke  rises 
over  it  on  still  days,  hanging  like  a  cloud  ;  to  the  east  lie  the  dark 
piuewoods  of  Suffolk,  to  the  north  an  interminable  fen ;  but  not 
only  is  it  that  one  sees  a  vast  extent  of  sky,  with  great  cloud-bat- 
talions crowding  up  from  the  south,  but  all  the  color  of  the  land- 
scape is  crowded  into  a  narrow  belt  to  the  eye,  which  gives  it  an 
intensity  of  emerald  hue  that  I  have  seen  nowhere  else  in  the 
world.  There  is  a  sense  of  deep  peace  about  it  all,  the  herb  of  the 
field  just  rising  in  its  place  over  the  wide  acres ;  the  air  is  touched 
with  a  lazy  fragrance,  as  of  hidden  flowers ;  and  there  is  a  sense, 
too,  of  silent  and  remote  lives,  of  men  that  glide  quietly  to  and  fro 
in  the  great  pastures,  going  quietly  about  their  work  in  a  leisurely 
calm.  —  A.  C.  Benson  :  At  Large. 

The  purpose  may  be  no  more  definite  than  to  produce  a 
favorable  or  an  unfavorable  impression  of  the  object  de- 
scribed, and  yet,  though  nowhere  avowed  in  the  essay,  it  will 
color  the  whole  description.  For  example,  the  description 
of  a  schoolroom  may  all  tend  to  show  the  need  of  improve- 
ment in  lighting,  care,  or  ventilation.  A  scene  may  be  de- 
scribed so  as  to  produce  the  same  feeling  of  sympathy  or 
abhorrence  that  was  produced  in  the  observer.  A  character 
description  may  excite  admiration,  or  reverence,  or  awe,  or 
detestation.  It  is  the  hidden  purpose  which  gives  cohesion, 
unity,  effectiveness,  and  individuality  to  a  descriptive  essay. 

57.  Point  of  View.  —  The  purpose  determines  the  point 
of  view  and  gives  the  character  and  coloring  to  the  whole 
essay.  The  expression,  "  point  of  view,"  is  used  in  two 
senses.  In  one  sense  it  is  to  be  understood  literally.  In 


POINT  OF  VIEW.  97 

describing  a  scene,  for  instance,  the  observer  takes  his 
stand  (in  thought)  at  some  point,  and  describes  the  elements 
that  make  up  the  scene  as  they  appear  to  him  from  that 
point.  It  may  be  necessary,  in  describing  extensive  objects 
(as  a  large  building  or  an  art  gallery),  for  the  describer  to 
change  his  point  of  view,  but  the  imaginary  path  which  he 
follows  should  be  clearly  marked  and  due  notice  of  each 
change  should  be  given  to  the  reader  by  some  such  expres- 
sion as,  "Passing  now  to  the  interior  of  the  building,  etc." 

Of  the  two  following  passages  the  first  illustrates  a  fixed 
point  of  view  —  the  "open  plat  of  turf"  —  the  second  a 
changing  point  of  view  following  the  path  indicated  by  the 
words  "Upon  reaching  the  deck,"  "In  a  couple  of  hours," 
"  We  steamed  slowly  in,"  "  Upon  landing  " :  — 

He  soon  reached  an  open  plat  of  turf,  on  the  opposite  side  of  which, 
a  rock,  rising  abruptly  from  a  gently  sloping  plain,  offered  its  gray 
and  weather-beaten  front  to  the  traveller.  Ivy  mantled  its  sides  in 
some  places,  and  in  others  oaks  and  holly  bushes,  whose  roots 
found  nourishment  in  the  cliffs  of  the  crag,  waved  over  the  preci- 
pices below,  like  the  plumage  of  the  warrior  over  his  steel  helmet, 
giving  grace  to  that  whose  chief  expression  was  terror.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  rock,  and  leaning,  as  it  were,  against  it,  was  con- 
structed a  rude  hut,  built  chiefly  of  the  trunks  of  trees  felled  in  the 
neighboring  forest,  and  secured  against  the  weather  by  having  its 
crevices  stuffed  with  moss  mingled  with  clay.  The  stem  of  a  young 
fir  tree  lopped  of  its  branches,  with  a  piece  of  wood  tied  across  near 
the  top,  was  planted  upright  by  the  door,  as  a  rude  emblem  of  the 
holy  cross.  At  a  little  distance  on  the  right  hand,  a  fountain  of 
the  purest  water  trickled  out  of  the  rock,  and  was  received  in  a 
hollow  stone,  which  labor  had  formed  into  a  rustic  basin.  Escap- 
ing from  thence,  the  stream  murmured  down  the  descent  by  a 
channel  which  its  course  had  long  worn,  and  so  wandered  through 
the  little  plain  to  lose  itself  in  the  neighboring  wood. 

Beside  this  fountain  were  the  ruins  of  a  very  small  chapel,  of 
which  the  roof  had  partly  fallen  in.  The  building,  when  entire, 
had  never  been  above  sixteen  feet  long  by  twelve  feet  in  breadth, 
and  the  roof,  low  in  proportion,  rested  on  four  concentric  arches, 


98  DESCRIPTION. 

which  sprung  from  the  four  corners  of  the  building,  each  supported 
upon  a  short  and  heavy  pillar.  The  ribs  of  two  of  these  arches 
remained,  though  the  roof  had  fallen  down  betwixt  them ;  over  the 
others  it  remained  entire.  The  entrance  to  this  ancient  place  of 
devotion  was  under  a  very  low  round  arch,  ornamented  by  several 
courses  of  that  zigzag  moulding,  resembling  shark's  teeth,  which 
appears  so  often  in  the  more  ancient  Saxon  architecture.  A  belfry 
rose  above  the  porch  on  four  small  pillars,  within  which  hung  the 
green  and  weather-beaten  bell,  the  feeble  sounds  of  which  had  been 
some  time  before  heard  by  the  Black  Knight.  —  Scott :  Ivanhoe. 

Upon  reaching  the  deck  the  following  morning,  I  saw  that  we 
were  threading  an  archipelago  of  little,  bare,  sandy  islands,  our 
course  between  them  being  carefully  marked  with  spars,  which  at 
night  bear  kerosene  lamps.  *  Other  steamers  and  a  few  sailing 
vessels  appeared  in  several  directions.  The  distant  coast  was  low 
and  yellow.  In  a  couple  of  hours  Asunada  came  into  view,  a 
level  of  one-story  houses  and  huts,  with  a  huge  tower  for  pump- 
ing oil,  the  steeple  of  a  church,  and  a  few  steamers  and  schooners 
at  the  long,  wooden  wharves,  alone  breaking  the  dull  uniformity. 
The  background  was  of  sand-hills,  and  there  was  not  a  single 
blade  of  vegetation  anywhere  in  sight.  In  the  centre  of  the 
town  were  several  long  lines  of  railway  cars,  and  the  telegraph- 
posts  extending  down  the  coast  told  the  direction  the  road  takes 
toward  the  interior.  We  steamed  slowly  in,  and  were  made 
fast  to  a  large  hulk  lying  at  one  of  the  wharves.  Upon  landing,  I 
noticed  that  most  of  the  houses  were  built  of  rough  logs,  though 
many  mud  huts  also  appeared.  There  were  no  streets  or  sidewalks, 
only  crooked  lanes  of  deep  sand,  if  I  except  the  asphalt  pavement 
which  led  to  the  railway  station.  The  place  had  the  appearance  of 
one  of  our  Western  towns  of  a  few  months'  growth ;  everything 
seemed  new,  incomplete,  temporary.  —  Frank  Vincent :  Samarkand 
and  Bokhara. 

But  a  wider  meaning  is  evident  in  the  expression,  point 
of  view,  when  we  say  that  a  description  is  written  from  the 
point  of  view  of  a  careless,  or  interested,  or  sympathetic 
observer ;  or  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  scientist,  or  the 
reformer,  or  the  teacher ;  the  expression  here  referring  to 


DEFINITE  OUTLINE.  99 

the  spirit  or  bias  of  the  observer.     Used  in  this  sense  the 
term  is  equivalent  to  purpose. 

58.  Outline.  —  Since  the  framework  of  the  description  is 
usually  concealed,  young  writers  are  apt  to  assume  that  in 
writing  description  a  definite  outline  may  be  dispensed  with. 
Nothing,  however,  could  be  farther  from  the  truth.  A 
good  description,  if  carefully  analyzed,  will  be  found  to  be 
as  firmly  articulated  as  an  argument.  It  is  well,  therefore, 
for  the  student  to  form  the  habit  of  noting,  either  on  paper 
or  in  his  mind,  the  order  in  which  he  will  arrange  the 
details  of  his  description. 

Material  objects  carry  their  own  outlines  with  them. 
The  observer  discovers  the  main  outlines  of  the  object  he 
wishes  to  describe  and  arranges  them  in  the  order  in  which 
they  appear  to  him.  As  the  main  features  of  any  material 
object  are  few  in  number,  the  corresponding  headings  in 
the  outline  will  be  few,  and  distinctly  stated.  The  lesser 
details,  so  far  as  these  require  mention,  will  be  arranged  as 
subdivisions  of  the  main  headings  to  which  they  respec- 
tively belong.  In  selecting  features  for  the  main  headings, 
prominence  is  the  rule  that  governs;  in  selecting  and 
arranging  the  details  for  the  subheadings,  the  order  of 
proximity  is  to  be  followed.  Descriptions  of  character  fur- 
nish a  less  obvious  outline.  Here  the  two  or  three  chief 
characteristics,  carefully  distinguished,  give  the  main  head- 
ings. These  larger  headings  are  presented  usually  in  the 
order  of  their  prominence,  the  most  prominent  coming  last ; 
lesser  traits  are  arranged  as  subdivisions  under  these  in  the 
order  of  similarity  or  of  contrast. 

The  following  piece  of  description  by  Euskin  is  arranged 
on  this  simple  and  obvious  plan:  — 

I.  Vegetable  life. 

1.  The  Mediterranean  region. 

2.  Switzerland  and  Prance. 


100  DESCRIPTION. 

3.  Northern  Europe. 

4.  The  Polar  region. 
II.   Animal  life. 

1.  The  southern  zone. 

2.  The  northern  zone. 

The  charts  of  the  world  which  have  been  drawn  up  by  modern 
science  have  thrown  into  a  narrow  space  the  expression  of  a  vast 
amount  of  knowledge,  but  I  have  never  yet  seen  any  one  pictorial 
enough  to  enable  the  spectator  to  imagine  the  kind  of  contrast  in 
physical  character  which  exists  between  Northern  and  Southern 
countries.  We  know  the  differences  in  detail,  but  we  have  not 
that  broad  glance  and  grasp  which  would  enable  us  to  feel  them 
in  their  fulness.  We  know  that  gentians  grow  on  the  Alps,  and 
olives  on  the  Apennines;  but  we  do  not  enough  conceive  for  our- 
selves that  variegated  mosaic  of  the  world's  surface  which  a  bird 
sees  in  its  migration,  that  difference  between  the  district  of  the 
gentian  and  of  the  olive  which  the  stork  and  the  swallow  see  far 
off  as  they  lean  upon  the  sirocco  wind.  Let  us,  for  a  moment,  try 
to  raise  ourselves  even  above  the  level  of  their  flight,  and  imagine 
tin  Mediterranean  lying  beneath  us  like  an  irregular  lake,  and  all 
its  ancient  promontories  sleeping  in  the  sun :  here  and  there  an 
angry  spot  of  thunder,  a  gray  stain  of  storm,  moving  upon  the 
burning  field;  and  here  and  there  a  fixed  wreath  of  white  volcano 
smoke,  surrounded  by  its  circle  of  ashes ;  but  for  the  most  part  a 
great  peacefulness  of  light,  Syria  and  Greece,  Italy  and  Spain, 
laid  like  pieces  of  a  golden  pavement  into  the  sea-blue,  chased,  as 
we  stoop  nearer  to  them,  with  bossy  beaten  work  of  mountain 
chains,  and  glowing  softly  with  terraced  gardens  and  flowers  heavy 
with  frankincense,  mixed  among  masses  of  laurel,  and  orange  and 
plumy  palm  that  abate  with  their  gray-green  shadows  the  burning 
of  the  marble  rocks,  and  of  the  ledges  of  porphyry  sloping  under 
lucent  sand.  Then  let  us  pase  farther  towards  the  north  until  we 
see  the  orient  colors  change  gradually  into  a  vast  belt  of  rainy 
green,  where  the  pastures  of  Switzerland,  and  the  poplar  valleys  of 
France,  and  the  dark  forests  of  the  Danube  and  Carpathian  stretch 
from  the  mouths  of  the  Loire  to  those  of  the  Volga,  seen  through 
clefts  in  gray  swirls  of  rain-cloud  and  flaky  veils  of  the  mist 


SELECTION  OF  SET-AILS.  101 


of  the  brooks,  spreading  low  along  the  pasture  lands :  and  then, 
farther  north  still,  to  see  the  earth  heave  into  mighty  masses  of 
leaden  rock  and  heathy  moor,  bordering  with  a  broad  waste  of 
gloomy  purple  that  belt  of  field  and  wood,  and  splintering  into 
irregular  and  grisly  islands  amidst  the  northern  seas,  beaten  by 
storm  and  chilled  by  icedrift,  and  tormented  by  furious  pulses  of 
contending  tides,  until  the  roots  of  the  last  forest  fail  from  among 
the  hill  ravines,  and  the  hunger  of  the  north  winds  bites  their 
peaks  into  barrenness ;  and,  at  last,  the  wall  of  ice,  durable  like 
iron,  sets,  deathlike,  its  white  teeth  against  us  out  of  the  polar 
twilight.  And,  having  once  traversed  in  thought  its  gradation  of 
the  zoned  iris  of  the  earth  in  all  its  material  vastness,  let  us  go 
down  nearer  to  it,  and  watch  the  parallel  change  in  the  belt  of 
animal  life :  the  multitudes  of  swift  and  brilliant  creatures  that 
glance  in  the  air  and  sea,  or  tread  the  sands  of  the  southern  zone  ; 
striped  zebras  and  spotted  leopards,  glistening  serpents,  and  birds 
arrayed  in  purple  and  scarlet.  Let  us  contrast  their  delicacy  and 
brilliancy  of  color,  and  swiftness  of  motion,  with  the  frost-cramped 
strength,  and  shaggy  covering,  and  dusky  plumage  of  the  northern 
tribes;  contrast  the  Arabian  horse  with  the  Shetland,  the  tiger 
and  leopard  with  the  wolf  and  bear,  the  antelope  with  the  elk,  the 
bird  of  paradise  with  the  osprey  :  and  then,  submissively  acknowl- 
edging the  great  laws  by  which  the  earth  and  all  that  it  bears  are 
ruled  throughout  their  being,  let  us  not  condemn,  but  rejoice  at 
the  expression  by  man  of  his  own  rest  in  the  statutes  of  the  lands 
that  gave  him  birth.  —  Ruskin:  The  Stones  of  Venice,  Vol.  II. 


59.  Selection  of  Details. — The  purpose  also  influences 
the  selection  of  details.  The  few  details  will  be  chosen 
which  are  most  suggestive  and  characteristic  of  the  thing 
described,  and  while  enough  will  be  said  to  give  a  unified 
picture,  those  details  will  be  especially  emphasized  which 
tend  to  bring  out  the  writer's  purpose  and  to  make  the 
reader  see  as  the  writer  saw. 

Examining  skilful  bits  of  description  like  the  following, 
we  are  surprised  to  see  how  few  details  are  needed,  if  they  are 
rightly  chosen,  to  give  a  complete  and  satisfying  picture. 


102  DESCRIPTION. 

By  all  odds  the  most  interesting  figure  there  was  that  of  a  stout 
peasant  serving-girl,  dressed  in  a  white  knitted  jacket,  a  crimson 
neckerchief,  and  a  bright-colored  gown,  and  wearing  long  dangling 
earrings  of  yellowest  gold.  —  Howells  :  Venetian  Life. 

A  brisk  little  old  woman  passed  us  by.  She  was  seated  across 
a  donkey  between  a  pair  of  glittering  milk-cans,  and,  as  she  went, 
she  kicked  jauntily  with  her  heels  upon  the  donkey's  side,  and 
scattered  shrill  remarks  among  the  wayfarers.  —  Stevenson:  An 
Inland  Voyage. 

By  this  time  we  were  clear  of  the  English  channel,  and  I  looked 
around  me  at  the  great  ocean,  swelling  in  long  lines  of  rich,  spar- 
kling blue  under  the  high  morning  sun.  Far  away,  blue  in  the  air, 
were  some  leaning  shafts  of  ships,  and  at  the  distance  of  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  a  large  steamer  was  passing,  steering  the  same  road  as 
ourselves.  —  W.  C.  Russell :  A  Three-stranded  Yarn. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  of  these  examples  the  points 
selected  for  special  mention  are  not  those  which  the  object 
or  scene  to  be  described  has  in  common  with  other  objects 
of  the  same  class,  but  those  in  which  it  differs  and  is 
peculiar. 

60.  Sequence  and  Grouping.  —  The  order  in  which  the  de- 
tails are  presented  is  determined  largely  by  the  character  of 
the  thing  described ;  but  this  order  may  be  modified  by  the 
purpose  of  the  writer.  In  describing  a  material  object  the 
general  impression  or  effect  produced  upon  the  observer  at 
the  first  view  naturally  comes  first :  the  impression  of  great- 
ness, massiveness,  beauty,  gloom,  or  brightness,  as  the  case 
may  be ;  then  often  the  color,  as  this  is  one  of  the  first 
things  noticed ;  next  the  general  plan,  shape,  and  size,  as 
these  give  the  reader  a  comprehensive  outline  into  which  he 
may  fit  the  details  as  they  are  mentioned ;  finally,  the  ma- 
terial, style,  arrangement,  furnishings,  and  use.  Lesser  de- 
tails will  be  mentioned  only  so  far  as  they  are  peculiar  or 
are  necessary  to  a  unified  picture,  and  they  will  be  pre- 
sented in  small  groups  in  connection  with  some  of  the  main 


SEQUENCE  AND   GROUPING.  .  103 

headings,  or,  if  mentioned  by  themselves,  will  be  used 
to  illustrate  some  characteristic  of  the  object  described, 
such  as  convenience,  adaptedness  to  use,  ornamentation,  or 
plainness. 

The  opening  words  of  the  following  description  —  "  It  is 
a  ghastly  ruin  "  —  give  us  the  general  impression  which  the 
details  are  intended  to  make  more  vivid  and  complete. 

It  is  a  ghastly  ruin ;  whatever  is  venerable  or  sad  in  its  wreck 
being  disguised  by  attempts  to  put  it  to  present  uses  of  the 
basest  kind.  It  has  been  composed  of  arcades  borne  by  marble 
shafts,  and  walls  of  brick  faced  with  marble  ;  but  the  covering 
stones  have  been  torn  away  from  it  like  the  shroud  from  a  corpse ; 
and  its  walls,  rent  into  a  thousand  chasms,  are  filled  and  refilled 
with  fresh  brickwork,  and  the  seams  and  hollows  are  choked 
with  clay  and  whitewash,  oozing  and  trickling  over  the  marble, — 
itself  blanched  into  dusty  decay  by  the  frost  of  centuries.  Soft 
grass  and  wandering  leafage  have  rooted  themselves  in  the  rents, 
but  they  are  not  suffered  to  grow  in  their  own  wild  and  gentle  way, 
for  the  place  is  in  a  sort  inhabited;  rotten  partitions  are  nailed 
across  its  corridors,  and  miserable  rooms  contrived  in  its  western 
wing ;  and  here  and  there  the  weeds  are  indolently  torn  down, 
leaving  their  haggard  fibres  to  struggle  again  into  unwholesome 
growth  when  the  spring  next  stirs  them :  and  thus,  in  contest 
between  death  and  life,  the  unsightly  heap  is  festering  to  its  fall. 
—  Ruskin  :  The  Stones  of  Venice,  Vol.  II.,  chap.  v. 

The  following  description  opens  with  an  indication  of 
the  size  of  the  room  :  — 

In  a  hall,  the  height  of  which  was  greatly  disproportioned  to  its 
extreme  length  and  width,  a  long  oaken  table  formed  of  planks 
rough-hewn  from  the  forest,  which  had  scarcely  received  any 
polish,  stood  ready  prepared  for  the  evening  meal  of  Cedric  the 
Saxon.  The  roof,  composed  of  beams  and  rafters,  had  nothing  to 
divide  the  apartment  from  the  sky  excepting  the  planking  and 
thatch ;  there  was  a  huge  fireplace  at  either  end  of  the  hall,  but  as 
the  chimneys  were  constructed  in  a  very  clumsy  manner,  at  least  as 
much  of  the  smoke  found  its  way  into  the  apartment  as  escaped 


104  DESCRIPTION. 

by  the  proper  vent  The  constant  vapor  which  this  occasioned 
had  polished  the  rafters  and  beams  of  the  low-browed  hall,  by  en- 
crusting them  with  a  black  varnish  of  soot.  On  the  sides  of  the 
apartment  hung  implements  of  war  and  of  the  chase,  and  there 
were  at  each  corner  folding  doors,  which  gave  access  to  other  parts 
of  the  extensive  building.  —  Scott  :  Ivanhoe. 

In  this  picture  of  the  cabin  of  a  fishing-schooner,  as  seen 
by  a  landsman,  Kipling  first  gives  us  an  impression  of  its 
size  and  shape,  then  of  the  lighting  of  it.  The  details 
which  first  attract  the  eye  of  the  observer  follow ;  and  last 
come  the  impressions  on  the  sense  of  smell. 

Wh«»n  he  waked  he  listened  for  the  first  breakfast-bell  on  the 
steamer,  wondering  why  his  stateroom  had  grown  so  small.  Turn- 
ing, he  looked  into  a  narrow,  triangular  cave,  lit  by  a  lamp  hung 
against  a  huge  square  beam.  A  three-cornered  table  within  arm's 
reach  ran  from  the  angle  of  the  bows  to  the  foremast.  At  the 
after  end  behind  a  well-used  Plymouth  stove,  sat  a  boy  about  his 
own  age,  with  a  flat,  red  face  and  a  pair  of  twinkling  gray  eyes. 
He  was  dressed  in  a  blue  jersey  and  high  rubber  boots.  Several 
pairs  of  the  same  sort  of  foot-wear,  an  old  cap,  and  some  worn-out 
woollen  socks  lay  on  the  floor,  and  black  and  yellow  oilskins  swayed 
to  and  fro  beside  the  bunks.  The  place  was  packed  as  full  of 
smells  as  a  bale  is  of  cotton.  The  oilskins  had  a  peculiarly  thick 
flavor  of  their  own  which  made  a  sort  of  background  to  the 
smells  of  fried  fish,  burnt  grease,  paint,  pepper,  and  stale  tobacco ; 
these  again  were  all  hooped  together  by  one  encircling  smell  of 
ship  and  salt  water.  —  Kipling:  Captains  Courageous. 

A  comparison  to  some  well-known  object  or  outline  is 
often  useful  in  giving  the  first  general  impression  which 
the  object  to  be  described  makes  upon  the  observer.  Thus, 
in  the  following,  the  reader  is  greatly  helped  in  imaging 
the  native  house  by  learning  that  it  resembles  a  boat,  keel 
upward,  on  the  stocks. 

The  native  houses  are  usually  built  on  poles  from  two  to  twenty 
feet  high,  and  those  upon  the  sea-shore  on  slender  piles  driven  into 
the  sand,  so  that  they  are  surrounded  by  water  at  high  tide.  In 


HELPS   TO  DESCEIPTION.  105 

general  appearance,  they  resemble  nothing  so  much  as  a  boat,  keel 
upward,  on  the  stocks.  They  are  very  simple  in  construction,  and 
consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  light  framework  of  wood,  thatched 
with  the  leaves  of  the  pandanus,  nipa,  or  sago,  and  floored  with 
the  sides  of  old  canoes,  or  split  bamboo,  secured  by  rattan  cane  to 
the  framework.  You  enter  by  means  of  a  rudely  constructed 
ladder,  reaching  from  the  ground  to  a  platform  which  frequently 
answers  the  double  purpose  of  a  veranda  and  a  passageway  be- 
tween the  different  houses  of  the  village.  There  is  a  door  at  either 
end,  but  no  windows,  and  the  interior  is  dark  and  gloomy.  Where 
there  is  a  fireplace,  it  is  constructed  upon  the  floor,  either  at  one 
side,  or  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  protection  against  fire  being 
provided  for  by  the  accumulation  of  ashes.  In  some  of  the  villages, 
the  houses  of  the  chiefs  are  distinguished  by  a  spire,  or  cupola, 
rising  thirty  feet,  or  more,  above  the  top  of  the  roof. 

A  comparison  or  outline  of  this  sort  at  the  beginning  of 
the  description  is  termed  the  fundamental  image. 

61.  Helps  to  Description.  — The  object  of  description  being 
to  make  the  reader  see  mentally  what  the  writer  saw  actu- 
ally, description  becomes  to  a  large  degree  a  matter  of 
conveying  impressions.  Comparisons,  similes,  contrasts,  epi- 
thet, and  figurative  language  are  the  natural  means  resorted 
to  for  conveying  personal  impressions  from  one  to  another 
and  have  a  prominent  part  in  effective  description.  Feel- 
ings and  circumstances  naturally  associated  with  objects  of 
the  class  described  give  clearness  and  vividness  to  a  de- 
scription, and  a  final  and  unified  impression  is  given  by 
stating  in  conclusion  the  effect  produced  upon  the  mind  of 
the  observer  when  in  the  presence  of  the  object,  as  in  the 
description  by  Kuskin,  quoted  in  the  preceding  section. 

In  the  following  the  sense  of  oppressive  sultriness  which 
the  writer  wishes  to  convey,  is  greatly  heightened  by  the  ref- 
erence at  the  close  to  the  refreshing  waters  of  the  lake  :  — 

The  fifes  and  drums  have  ceased  to  sound.  The  parade  is  formed 
—  after  a  fashion.  Two  straggling,  uncertain  lines  of  unarmed, 


106  DESCRIPTION. 

blue-clad  men  stretch  across  the  uneven  field.  A  group  of  musi- 
cians, with  a  few  fifes  and  drums,  are  in  their  places  on  the  right. 
The  men  stand  at  parade  rest,  with  hands  clasped  loosely  before 
them.  The  sun  beats  hot  on  the  glowing  napes,  which  the  military 
caps,  now  donned  for  the  first  time,  leave  unprotected.  The  sweat- 
drops  creep  down  the  flushed  faces.  Many  an  eye  wanders  long- 
ingly to  the  blue,  sparkling  waves  of  Lake  Eric,  of  which  one 
might  catch  a  distant  glimpse.  —  A.  W.  Tourgee :  The  Story  of  a 
Thousand. 

Notice  in  the  following  passage,  how  the  difficult  task  of 
conveying  an  impression  of  the  odors  of  a  forest  is  helped 
by  the  use  of  such  carefully  chosen  epithets  as  fortifying, 
pistolling,  tonic,  coquetttm^ffoery,  by  the  comparison  to 
snuff  in  the  nostrils,  and  by  the  suggestion  of  "  open  water 
and  tall  ships"  :  — 

And,  surely,  of  all  smells  in  the  world  the  smell  of  many  trees 
is  the  sweetest  and  most  fortifying.  The  sea  has  a  rude  pistolling 
sort  of  odor,  that  takes  you  In  the  nostrils  like  snuff,  and  carries 
with  it  a  fine  sentiment  of  open  water  and  tall  ships ;  but  the 
smell  of  a  forest,  which  comes  nearest  to  this  in  tonic  quality, 
surpasses  it  by  many  degrees  in  the  quality  of  softness.  Again, 
the  smell  of  the  sea  has  little  variety,  but  the  smell  of  a  forest  is 
infinitely  changeful ;  it  varies  with  the  hour  of  the  day,  not  in 
strength  merely,  but  in  character;  and  the  different  sorts  of  trees, 
as  you  go  from  one  zone  of  the  wood  to  another,  seem  to  live 
among  different  kinds  of  atmosphere.  Usually  the  rosin  of  the 
fir  predominates.  But  some  woods  are  more  coquettish  in  their 
habits ;  and  the  breath  of  the  forest  J/ormo/,  as  it  came  aboard  upon 
us  that  showery  afternoon,  was  perfumed  with  nothing  less  delicate 
than  sweetbrier.  —  Stevenson  :  A  n  Inland  Voyage. 

62.  Kinds  of  Description. — Descriptions  may  be  graded 
ling  to  the  degree  in  which  the  imagination  and 
emotions  of  the  writer  fuse  the  various  images  into  a  com- 
plete, well-rounded  picture.  At  one  extremity  of  the  scale 
are  descriptions  which  are  little  more  than  the  enumeration 
of  details.  Such  are  descriptions  of  buildings  and  ma- 


HINDS   OF  DESCRIPTION.  107 

chinery  for  business  purposes,  the  descriptions  of  persons 
for  purposes  of  identification,  the  descriptions  of  plants, 
animals,  and  objects  of  nature  for  scientific  purposes. 
Even  in  these  instances,  however,  there  is  an  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  skill.  It  is  possible  to  enumerate 
details  either  in  a  way  that  will  confuse  the  reader  and 
mislead  him,  or  in  a  way  that  will  convey  an  exact  and 
satisfying  idea  of  the  object  described.  In  even  the  barest 
enumeration  the  purpose  of  the  description  should  be  kept 
in  view.  The  details  should  be  carefully  selected,  and 
arranged  in  a  definite  order,  and  the  less  important  items 
should  in  some  way  be  made  subordinate  to  the  more  im- 
portant. 

In  the  following  description  of  a  kind  of  wood  found  in 
the  Philippine  Islands  the  purpose  is  less  to  present  a  pic- 
ture than  to  give  such  an  enumeration  of  the  details  as  will 
enable  any  one  to  identify  the  species :  — 

Camagon  (Diospyrus  pilosanthera  var.).  Tree  of  moderate 
size,  wood  black,  with  narrow  brown  or  yellowish  red  streaks,  and 
sometimes  with  black  spots.  It  is  of  very  solid  texture,  with 
straight  longitudinally  compressed  fibre  and  broad  short  pores, 
slightly  marked.  It  takes  a  good  polish,  and  breaks  almost  square. 
Its  shaving  is  somewhat  rough,  is  compact,  and  does  not  curl  at 
all.  The  wood  is  highly  valued  for  cabinetwork  on  account  of  its 
color  and  polish.  It  is  often  confounded  with  ebony.  It  ordinarily 
comes  into  the  market  in  logs  9  feet  or  more  in  length  up  to  12 
feet  in  diameter.  —  Report  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  1900,  Vol. 
III.,  p.  293. 

Compare  with  the  foregoing  this  description  of  the 
Blake  transmitter,  noting  how  the  details  are  combined 
and  how  the  less  important  items  are  subordinated  to  the 
more  important:  — 

The  Blake  transmitter  consisted  of  a  small  black-walnut  box, 
nearly  square  in  form  and  having  a  funnel-shaped  hole  cut  in  the 
door  to  serve  as  a  mouthpiece.  Within  the  box  was  a  soft  iron 


108  DESCRIPTION. 

diaphragm  and  suspended  parallel  to  its  centre  was  a  polished 
button  of  pure  carbon.  Between  the  two  hung  a  German-silver 
spring  bearing  a  pellet  of  platinum  which  barely  touched  the  centre 
of  the  carbon.  When  the  Blake  transmitter  was  in  use,  the  im- 
pinging sound  waves  pressed  the  diaphragm  against  the  platinum 
and  forced  it  with  varying  pressure  against  the  carbon  button. 
This  changing  pressure  varied  the  resistance  opposed  to  the  flow 
of  the  battery  current,  which  pulsated  through  the  carbon  and 
into  the  primary  winding  of  an  induction  coil  or  transformer, 
where  it  was  converted  into  an  alternating  current  through  the 
inductive  effects  of  the  secondary  winding,  and  passed  out  in 
undulating  or  wave-like  form  into  the  line  or  subscriber  circuit, 
thence  through  the  copper  wire  in  the  green-covered  telephone  cord 
attached  to  the  receiver,  and  on  into  the  wire  wound  on  the  elec- 
tro-magnet. Energizing  the  latter  varied  the  attractive  or  pulling 
power  of  the  pole  pieces,  thus  causing  the  receiver  diaphragm  to 
vibrate  in  a  manner  exactly  reproducing  the  vibratory  motion  of 
the  transmitting  diaphragm,  and  setting  up  a  series  of  sound  waves 
in  the  receiver  exactly  corresponding  to  those  produced  by  the 
vocal  cords  of  the  speaker.  —  Popular  Science  Monthly,  May,  1907. 

A  still  more  complete  fusion  of  the  details  into  a  single 
picture  is  seen  in  the  following  example :  — 

The  sting  is  a  bee's  only  weapon.  It  is  not  the  single  spear 
that  it  appears  to  the  naked  eye,  but  consists  of  three  prongs  each 
beautifully  grooved  into  the  others,  thus  forming  a  sort  of  tube 
through  which  flows  the  poison  from  the  sac  to  which  the  sting  is 
attached.  As  soon  as  the  point  of  the  sting  enters  the  flesh,  two 
of  the  prongs,  which  are  barbed,  begin  to  work  forward,  alternately. 
When  one  has  been  thrust  forward,  its  barbs  catch  in  the  flesh  and 
hold  while  the  other  is  being  thrust  forward,  and  this  motion,  which 
also  pumps  the  poison  from  the  poison  sac,  is  continued  until  the 
sting  has  penetrated  to  its  full  length. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  scale  are  descriptions  in  which 
the  main  purpose  of  the  writer  is  to  give  a  vivid  impression 
of  the  object  as  a  whole,  especially  as  it  is  colored  by  his 
temperament,  his  mood,  or  his  imagination.  Having  ob- 
served the  object  when  he  was  angry,  or  terrified,  or  de- 


KINDS  OF  DESCRIPTION.  109 

spondent,  or  elated,  he  tries  to  make  his  readers  see  it  in  the 
same  light.  A  vivid  imagination  will  give  these  qualities 
to  passages  of  almost  pure  enumeration :  — 

I  ran  my  eye  over  the  ship.  The  scene  had  that  sort  of  morbid 
tragic  interest  to  me  which  the  architecture  and  furniture  of  a 
prison  cell  takes  for  one  who  is  to  pass  many  months  in  it.  I 
beheld  a  long  white  deck,  extending  from  the  taffrail  into  the 
bows,  with  several  structures  breaking  the  wide,  lustrous  conti- 
nuity of  it ;  one  forward  was  the  galley,  the  ship's  kitchen ;  on 
this  side  of  it  was  a  large  boat  with  sheep  bleating  inside  her ; 
whilst  underneath  was  a  sty  full  of  pigs,  flanked  by  hencoops 
whose  bars  throbbed  with  the  ceaseless  protrusion  and  withdrawal 
of  the  flapping  combs  of  cocks  and  the  heads  of  hens.  Near  us 
was  a  great  square  hatch  covered  with  a  tarpaulin,  and  further  aft, 
as  the  proper  expression  is,  was  a  big  glazed  frame  for  the  admis- 
sion of  light  into  the  cabin ;  some  distance  past  it,  a  sort  of  box 
curved  in  the  aspect  of  a  hood,  called  the  companionway,  con- 
ducted you  below.  At  the  end  of  the  ship  was  the  wheel,  like  a 
circle  of  flame,  with  the  brasswork  of  it  flashing  to  the  sun,  and 
immediately  in  front  stood  the  compass-box,  or  binnacle,  glittering 
like  the  wheel,  and  trembling  to  its  height  upon  the  white  planks 
like  a  short  pillar  of  fire.  —  W.  C.  Russell:  A  Three-stranded  Yarn. 

In  such  descriptions  especial  care  must  be  taken  to  observe 
the  principles  which  have  been  presented  above.  The  slight- 
est departure  from  the  purpose,  the  admission  of  a  single 
detail  not  needed  for  the  impression  sought  to  be  conveyed, 
or  the  omission  of  a  detail  which  is  needed  for  the  picture, 
the  least  variation  from  the  natural  and  effective  order,  the 
least  over-emphasis  of  an  unimportant  detail,  will  throw 
the  picture  into  disorder  and  destroy  the  illusion.  The 
task  of  writing  a  perfect  description  of  this  kind  is  like  that 
of  painting  a  perfect  picture.  In  fine  work  such  as  this 
every  brush-stroke  counts,  and  a  stroke  in  the  wrong  place 
will  mar  the  whole  effect. 

In  description  of  this  kind  success  depends  also  to  a  great 
extent  upon  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which  appeal  to 


110  DESCRIPTION. 

the  emotions  and  the  imagination.  Of  especial  value  are 
so-called  suggestive  expressions,  which,  meaning  perhaps 
little  in  themselves,  can  induce  moods  and  arouse  whole 
trains  of  images,  a  single  word  sometimes  serving  to  call  up 
a  picture  which  could  not  be  described  in  detail  in  an  entire 
paragraph. 

The  harper  thrummed  with  rapid  fingers;  the  violin  player 
flashed  his  bow  back  and  forth  across  the  strings;  the  flautist 
poured  his  breath  in  quick  puffs  of  jollity,  while  Donatello  shook 
the  tambourine  above  his  head,  and  led  the  merry  throng  with 
unwearied  steps.  As  they  followed  one  another  in  a  wild  ring  of 
mirth,  it  seemed  the  realization  of  one  of  those  bas-reliefs  where  a 
dance  of  nymphs,  satyrs,  or  bacchanals  is  twined  round  the  circle 
of  an  antique  vase ;  or  it  was  like  the  sculptured  scene  on  the  front 
and  sides  of  a  sarcophagus,  where,  as  often  as  any  other  device,  a 
festive  procession  mocks  the  ashes  and  white  bones  that  are  treas- 
u  ml  up  within.  You  might  take  it  for  a  marriage-pageant ;  but 
after  a  while,  if  you  look  at  these  merry-makers,  following  them 
from  end  to  end  of  the  marble  coffin,  you  doubt  whether  their  gay 
movement  is  leading  them  to  a  happy  close.  A  youth  has  sud- 
denly fallen  in  the  dance ;  a  chariot  is  overturned  and  broken, 
flinging  the  charioteer  headlong  to  the  ground ;  a  maiden  seems 
to  have  grown  faint  or  weary  and  is  drooping  on  the  bosom  of  a 
friend.  Always  some  tragic  incident  is  shadowed  forth  or  thrust 
sidelong  into  the  spectacle ;  and  when  once  it  has  caught  your  eye 
you  can  look  no  more  at  the  festal  portions  of  the  scene  except 
with  reference  to  this  one  slightly  suggesting  doom  and  sorrow. 

—  Hawthorne:  The  Marble  Faun. 

The  magnificence  of  that  moonlight  scene  gave  me  no  deeper 
joy  than  I  won  from  the  fine  spectacle  of  an  old  man  whom  I  saw 
burning  coffee  one  night  in  the  little  court  behind  my  lodgings, 
and  whom  1  recollect  now  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  people  I 
saw  in  my  first  days  at  Venice.  •  All  day  long  the  air  had  reeked 
with  the  odors  of  the  fragrant  berry,  and  all  day  long  this  patient 
old  man  —  sage,  let  me  call  him  —  had  turned  the  sheet-iron  cylin- 
der in  which  it  was  roasting  over  an  open  fire  after  the  picturesque 
fashion  of  roasting  coffee  in  Venice.  Now  that  the  night  had 


KINDS  OF  DESCRIPTION.  Ill 

fallen,  and  the  stars  shone  down  upon  him,  and  the  red  of  the  flame 
luridly  illumined  him,  he  showed  more  grand  and  venerable  than 
ever.  Simple,  abstract  humanity  has  its  own  grandeur  in  Italy ; 
and  it  is  not  hard  here  for  the  artist  to  find  the  primitive  types 
with  which  genius  loves  best  to  deal.  As  for  this  old  man,  he  had 
the  beard  of  a  saint,  and  the  dignity  of  a  senator,  harmonized  with 
the  squalor  of  a  beggar,  superior  to  which  shone  his  abstract,  un- 
conscious grandeur  of  humanity.  A  vast  and  calm  melancholy, 
which  had  nothing  to  do  with  burning  coffee,  dwelt  in  his  aspect 
and  attitude ;  and  if  he  had  been  some  dread  supernatural  agency, 
turning  the  wheel  of  fortune,  and  doing  men,  instead  of  coffee, 
brown,  he  could  not  have  looked  more  sadly  and  weirdly  impres- 
sive. When,  presently,  he  rose  from  his  seat,  and  lifted  the  cylin- 
der from  its  place,  and  the  clinging  flames  leaped  after  it,  and  he 
shook  it,  and  a  volume  of  luminous  smoke  enveloped  him  and 
glorified  him  — then  I  felt  with  secret  anguish  that  he  was  beyond 
art,  and  turned  sadly  from  the  spectacle  of  that  sublime  and  hope- 
less magnificence.  —  W.  D.  Howells :  Venetian  Life. 

Besides  the  singing  and  calling,  there  is  a  peculiar  sound  which 
is  only  heard  in  summer.  Waiting  quietly  to  discover  what  birds 
are  about,  I  become  aware  of  a  sound  in  the  very  air.  It  is  not  the 
midsummer  hum  which  will  soon  be  heard  over  the  heated  hay  in 
the  valley  and  over  the  cooler  hills  alike.  It  is  not  enough  to  be 
called  a  hum,  and  does  but  just  tremble  at  the  extreme  edge  of 
hearing.  If  the  branches  wave  and  rustle  they  overbear  it ;  the 
buzz  of  a  passing  bee  is  so  much  louder,  it  overcomes  all  of  it  in 
the  entire  field.  I  cannot  define  it,  except  by  calling  the  hours  of 
winter  to  mind  —  they  are  silent ;  you  hear  a  branch  crack  or  creak 
as  it  rubs  another  in  the  wood,  you  hear  the  hoar  frost  crunch  on 
the  grass  beneath  your  feet,  but  the  air  is  without  sound  in  itself. 
The  sound  of  summer  is  everywhere  —  in  the  passing  breeze,  in 
the  hedge,  in  the  broad-branching  trees,  in  the  grass  as  it  swings ; 
all  the  myriad  particles  that  together  make  the  summer  varied  are 
in  motion.  The  sap  moves  in  the  trees,  the  pollen  is  pushed  out 
from  grass  and  flower,  and  yet  again  these  acres  and  acres  of  leaves 
and  square  miles  of  grass  blades —  for  they  would  cover  acres  and 
square  miles  if  reckoned  edge  to  edge — are  drawing  their  strength 
from  the  atmosphere.  Exceedingly  minute  as  these  vibrations 
must  be,  their  numbers  perhaps  may  give  them  a  volume  almost 


112  NARRATION. 

reaching  in  the  aggregate  to  the  power  of  the  ear.  Besides  the 
quivering  leaf,  the  swinging  grass,  the  fluttering  bird's  wing,  and 
the  thousand  oval  membranes  which  innumerable  insects  whirl 
about,  a  faint  resonance  seems  to  come  from  the  very  earth  itself. 
The  fervor  of  the  sunbeams  descending  in  a  tidal  flood  rings  on 
the  strung  harp  of  earth.  It  is  this  exquisite  undertone,  heard  and 
yet  unheard,  which  brings  the  mind  into  sweet  accordance  with 
the  wonderful  instrument  of  nature.  —  Richard  Jefferies :  The 
Pageant  of  Summer. 

Narration. 

63.  A  narrative  is  the  presentation  in  language  of  successive 
related  events  occurring  in  time.  Its  distinctive  feature  is  ac- 
tion or  change.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  it  differs  most 
widely  from  description,  which  represents  an  object  as  it 
appears  at  a  single  moment.  Narrative  is  indeed  akin  to 
description  in  that  it  arouses  images  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader,  but  these  images  do  not  fuse,  as  in  description,  into 
a  single  picture ;  they  pass  before  us  in  a  connected  series, 
each  image  pointing  the  way  to  the  next  until  the  end  is 
reached. 

Every  narrative  involves  some  description ;  a  history,  for 
example,  requires  much  descriptive  matter ;  but  here,  as  in 
other  forms  of  narration  the  descriptive  matter  is  merely  sub- 
sidiary and  explanatory,  and  is  kept  subordinate  to  the  main 
purpose  of  reciting  events  as  they  occur,  one  after  another. 

Although  narratives  are  of  many  different  kinds,  it  will 
serve  our  purpose  best  at  this  point  to  divide  them  into  two 
principal  classes :  (1)  simple  narratives  and  (2)  complex 
narratives,  or  narratives  with  plot.  The  leading  principles 
of  all  narrative  will  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
first  class.  Plotted  narratives,  although  they  illustrate  the 
same  principles  as  do  simple  incidents,  are  so  peculiar  in 
their  construction  that  they  will  be  best  treated  under  a 
separate  heading. 


UNITY.  113 

64.  Simple  Narrative.  —  By  a  simple  narrative  is  meant 
a  narrative  in  which  the  action  pursues  its  course  from  start  to 
finish  without  check  or  delay.     The  series  of  events  once  set 
going,  one  happening  follows  upon  another  until  the  natural 
conclusion  is  attained.     Such  a  narrative  may  be  compared 
to  the  progress  of  a  boulder  which  has  been  started  rolling 
down  a  gently  sloping  hillside.     Driven  by  the  force  of 
gravitation,  the  stone  rolls  on  its  way  with  increasing  speed 
until  it  reaches  the  plain  at  the  bottom,  where,  in  time,  its 
momentum  being  exhausted,  it  comes  naturally  to  rest.     The 
following  is  a  good  example  of  narrative  of  this  kind :  — 

And  the  other  fishing  days  when  you  got  up  before  dawn  and 
stole  downstairs  to  the  dim  kitchen.  A  drink  of  milk,  a  doughnut, 
and  a  triangle  of  pie,  then  you  stole  out  quietly  to  the  barn  and  got 
the  spading-fork.  Then  the  search,  armed  with  fork  and  tomato- 
can,  under  the  broad  leaves  of  the  rhubarb  bed,  back  of  the  hen- 
house and  down  by  the  cow  barn,  until  you  had  enough  worms  for 
the  day's  sport.  Then,  of  course,  you  left  the  fork  sticking  in  the 
ground  —  you  never  would  learn  to  put  things  away  —  and  started 
off.  Through  the  garden  and  orchard,  stopping  long  enough  for  a 
handful  of  currants  and  a  pocketful  of  sopsavines  —  over  the  pas- 
ture bars,  eating  a  handful  of  huckleberries  or  low-bush  black- 
berries here  and  there.  Into  the  wood  road  —  very  dark  and  still 
in  the  dawn  —  where  you  stepped  along  very  quietly  so  as  not  to 
disturb  the  bears.  You  knew  perfectly  well  there  were  no  bears, 
but  you  rather  enjoyed  the  creepy  sensation.  Then  out  through 
the  deep  wet  meadow  grass  to  the  river,  where  the  sun  was  now 
beginning  to  burn  away  the  wisps  of  mist,  and  the  red- winged 
blackbirds  were  making  a  tremendous  fuss  over  their  housekeep- 
ing. You  reached  the  riverbank  at  the  pout  hole,  or  the  big  rock, 
or  the  old  willow  (of  course,  you  know  the  exact  place),  and  then 
you  started  fishing.  —  Atlantic  Monthly. 

65.  The  essential  requisites  of  simple  narrative  —  as  of  all 
narrative  —  are  unity,  sequence,  and  climax. 

66.  Unity.  —  Unity  in  narrative  has  three  aspects:  unity 
of   purpose,  of  subject,  and  of  action.     The  first  requires 


Hi  NARRATION. 

that  throughout  the  course  of  the  narrative  the  writer  hold 
consistently  to  a  single  idea  or  a  single  point  of  view  (in 
the  larger  sense  of  the  terra).  This  underlying  idea  may 
be  explicitly  stated,  as  in  the  fable,  it  may  be  skilfully  con- 
cealed, as  in  most  simple  incidents,  or  it  may  be  no  more 
than  a  peculiar  atmosphere  or  tone  which  pervades  the  com- 
position, as  in  the  selection  just  quoted;  but  unless  it  is 
present  in  one  form  or  another,  the  narrative  will  impress 
the  thoughtful  reader  as  pointless  and  not  worth  the  telling. 

Unity  of  subject  requires  that  one  and  only  one  person  or 
thing  form  the  centre  of  interest.  Other  persons  or  things 
which  may  play  a  part  in  the  series  of  incidents  must  be 
subordinated,  however  interesting  they  may  be  in  themselves. 
The  surest  mark  of  the  practised  story-teller  is  his  willing- 
ness to  sacrifice  attractive  material  in  order  that  attention 
may  be  held  to  the  principal  subject. 

Unity  of  action  requires  that  a  single  line  of  progression 
be  made  evident  throughout  the  narrative.  Having  marked 
out  a  straight  and  narrow  path  which  he  means  to  follow, 
the  writer  presses  steadily  onward,  looking  neither  to  the 
right  nor  to  the  left,  until  the  end  is  reached.  If  other 
lines  of  action  are  necessary,  they  are  combined  with  the 
main  line  and  subordinated  to  it.  The  conclusion  is  kept 
in  view  all  the  time  and  nothing  is  admitted  which  does 
not  carry  the  narrative  forward  towards  it.  This  point 
furnishes  the  centre  of  unity  to  a  narrative.  When  it  is 
reached,  the  reason  is  apparent  for  all  the  details  and  inci- 
dents that  have  been  previously  mentioned. 

These  three  phases  of  unity  are  mutually  helpful.  Unity 
of  purpose,  for  example,  compels  unity  of  subject  and  tends 
to  keep  the  action  within  proper  bounds. 

67.  Sequence.  —  The  narrative  writer  sees  clearly  (what 
his  reader  cannot  see)  the  end  for  which  all  the  incidents 
are  recounted  and  to  which  they  all  contribute.  This  sug- 


SEQUENCE.  115 

gests  the  chief  rule  of  sequence :  That  sequence  of  events  is 
best  in  which  each  occurrence  stated  is  necessary  to  the  proper 
understanding  of  its  successor.  The  first  event  makes  neces- 
sary a  second ;  the  second,  a  third ;  and  so  on  to  the  end  of 
the  series.  When  the  conclusion  is  reached,  the  reader, 
looking  back  over  the  narrative,  sees  that  each  event,  in  its 
proper  place,  was  indispensable,  and  that  the  conclusion  is 
the  inevitable  outcome  of  all  the  events  that  preceded  it. 
In  a  well-written  narrative  the  successive  events  are  so 
closely  knit  that  no  one  of  them  can  be  taken  out  or  re- 
moved to  another  place  without  breaking  up  the  continuity 
of  the  whole. 

The  following  illustrates  this  close  sequence  of  events :  — 

On  the  roof  of  a  meat  store  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  a  clothes- 
line was  stretched  and  on  it  a  wet  handkerchief  was  hung  to  dry. 
This  was  seized  by  the  wind,  and  twisted  around  an  electric  wire ; 
by  means  of  its  dampness,  this  handkerchief  conducted  the  elec- 
tricity along  the  wire,  and  brought  it  into  communication  with 
other  wires,  running  along  which  it  reached  the  water-pipes  in  the 
cellar.  From  these  the  electricity  sprang  to  the  stove,  on  which 
stood  a  kettle  of  boiling  fat,  to  which  it  communicated  so  strong 
a  light  that  a  workman  who  was  near  thought  the  fat  was  burn- 
ing. In  attempting  to  take  the  kettle  from  the  stove,  he  received 
an  electric  shock  which  threw  him  against  the  wall.  Pale  with 
terror,  the  man  ran  into  a  room  back  of  the  workshop.  Another 
workman,  trying  to  bring  him  a  glass  of  water,  turned  the  brass 
faucet  of  the  water-pipe,  and  was  immediately  thrown  against  the 
farthest  corner  of  the  room.  For  several  minutes  everything  ap- 
peared to  be  turned  into  a  galvanic  battery ;  the  nails  on  the  wall 
were  red  hot,  the  water-pipes  spouted  out  flames,  and  even  the 
iron  bands  of  the  water  pail  showed  signs  of  disturbance.  Finally 
the  cause  of  the  commotion  was  discovered  and  ended,  as  soon  as 
the  wire  was  freed  from  the  embrace  of  the  wet  handkerchief. 

Events  may  be  related  either  in  the  order  in  which  they 
occurred,  that  is,  in  the  time-order,  or  in  the  order  of  cause 
and  effect.  If  possible,  the  two  orders  should  coincide.  In 


116  NARRATION. 

the  more  abstract  kinds  of  narrative  such  as  the  History  ol 
the  Labor  Movement,  the  Rise  of  Romanticism  in  England, 
and  the  like,  it  is  often  best  to  take  up  one  line  of  cause 
and  effect  and  arrange  the  selected  events  that  belong  to  it  in 
the  time-order ;  then  a  second  line  of  cause  and  effect  with 
its  selected  events,  and  so  on. 

68.  Climax.  —  Every  good  narrative  has  a  cumulative 
effect ;  that  is,  the  events  grow  in  interest  as  the  story  goes 
on.  This  effect  will  come  about  naturally  if  the  events 
are  told  clearly  and  straightforwardly,  since  the  better  we 
understand  a  subject  the  more  we  are  interested  in  it ;  but 
the  effect  may  be  greatly  enhanced  by  a  skilful  selection  and 
arrangement  of  details.  The  expert  story-teller,  therefore, 
reserves  his  more  attractive  incidents  for  the  latter  part  of 
the  narrative.  Climax  is  much  more  likely  to  be  secured, 
also,  if  the  end  of  the  narrative  is  kept  in  view  from  the  be- 
ginning and  no  detail  is  admitted  which  does  not  in  some 
way  help  to  forward  the  action. 

In  the  following  account  of  the  way  in  which  a  taxider- 
mist mounts  an  animal  for  the  museum,  the  interest  is  skil- 
fully heightened,  as  the  narrative  goes  on,  by  bringing  into 
prominence  increasingly  difficult  features  of  the  work :  — 

AN' hen  an  animal  is  received  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
an  elaborate  series  of  measurements  are  at  once  taken  from  it  in 
the  flesh.  These  are  of  invaluable  assistance  hi  the  final  work  of 
mounting.  Next  the  taxidermist,  equipped  with  modelling  wax 
and  tools,  goes  to  the  Zoological  Park  and  makes  a  miniature 
model  of  the  animal  from  the  living  specimen  there.  This  small 
model  is  prepared  with  great  care,  and  the  anatomy  of  each  part 
is  worked  out  to  the  minutest  detail.  It  is  here  that  the  real  genius 
of  the  modeller  is  shown  —  if  he  be  an  artist  worthy  of  the  name, 
he  can  put  into  the  animal  the  result  of  his  study  and  observation, 
and  give  it  all  the  grace  and  beauty  of  life,  with  none  of  the  stiff- 
ness of  a  mechanical  structure.  After  the  small  model  has  been 
completed,  the  leg-bones  and  skull  of  the  specimen  to  be  mounted 


SIMPLE  NARRATIVE.  117 

are  placed  in  position  and  wired;  thus  the  general  outline  of  the 
animal  is  given,  and  the  basis  of  the  life-sized  model  formed,  ex- 
actly as  a  sculptor  makes  an  armature  for  a  large  figure.  On  this 
framework  or  skeleton  wet  clay  is  piled,  until  the  mass  corre- 
sponds in  some  degree  to  the  measurements  taken  from  the  animal 
in  the  flesh,  and  then  the  artist  begins  with  his  modelling  tools  to 
bring  order  out  of  chaos.  Every  part  of  the  body  is  studied  with 
the  utmost  care,  and  every  layer  of  muscle,  every  cord  and  tendon, 
is  reproduced  exactly  as  it  lies  in  a  living  animal.  The  sculptor 
has  the  whole  body  under  his  control  at  once,  for  the  legs  and 
neck  are  wired  tightly  and  can  be  moved  at  will.  From  time  to  time 
the  skin  of  the  animal  is  tried  on  over  the  clay  body  to  insure  an 
exact  fit,  and  any  imperfections  in  the  model  are  corrected. 

When  the  manikin  fits  exactly,  the  last  touches  are  given,  and 
there  stands  on  the  pedestal  a  perfect  animal  minus  the  skin,  for 
every  layer  of  muscle  and  every  cord  is  there,  placed  with  the 
knowledge  of  a  scientist  and  the  skill  of  an  artist.  A  plaster  mould 
is  then  taken  of  the  clay  model,  from  which  a  cast  is  made.  This 
cast  is  very  thin,  and  is  lined  with  burlap,  to  combine  strength  and 
durability  with  the  minimum  of  weight.  The  clay  model  is  now 
discarded  and  the  cast  allowed  to  dry,  after  which  it  is  dressed  with 
shellac  to  make  it  waterproof,  and  finally  given  a  coat  of  glue. 
Then  the  skin  is  adjusted  and  the  seams  neatly  sewed  up  with 
strong  waxed  twine.  Contrary  to  the  general  idea,  the  ears,  nose, 
and  eyes  are  left  until  the  last,  and  are  carefully  worked  out  in 
papier-mache*.  This  is  at  once  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  inter- 
esting parts  of  the  work,  for  the  delicate  lines  of  the  nostrils  and 
the  modelling  of  the  eyes  require  the  utmost  skill  and  closest 
study.  In  the  eye  lies  the  whole  expression  of  the  face,  and  the 
animal  is  made  or  marred  by  this  one  detail.  After  the  finishing 
touches  have  been  given,  the  specimen  is  set  away  to  dry  prepara- 
tory to  being  placed  in  the  particular  group  for  which  it  may  have 
been  designed. 

69.  The  Elements  of  Simple  Narrative.  —  A  narrative 
must  begin  at  a  definite  point  of  time  and  in  a  definite  place ; 
it  must  develop  its  subject  in  a  series  of  incidents ;  it  must 
come  to  a  fitting  conclusion.  Its  constituent  elements  may 


118  NARRATION. 

therefore  be  said  to  be  (1)  the  setting,  that  is,  the  time  and 
place  in  which  it  occurs,  (2)  the  beginning  of  the  action,  (3) 
the  course  of  the  action,  (4)  the  conclusion.  To  these  we 
may  add  (5)  the  persons  (characters)  or  things  which  take 
part  in  the  action,  and  (6)  the  purpose  of  the  writer,  already 
referred  to. 

In  the  following  simple  narrative  these  elements  are 
readily  distinguished.  The  place  is  an  inn  in  a  small  Eng- 
lish town.  The  time  is  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The 
action  proper  begins  with  the  arrival  of  the  narrator  at  the 
inn.  The  events  then  follow  in  the  order  of  their  actual 
occurrence,  and  the  conclusion  (of  this  part  of  the  story)  is 
reached  when  the  narrator  has  washed  his  hands  and  head 
at  the  pump.  The  characters  are  the  narrator,  the  landlord, 
and  the  maid.  The  purpose  is  to  entertain  the  reader  by  a 
series  of  familiar  incidents  told  in  a  spirited,  humorous 
way.  • 

After  walking  about  a  dozen  miles,  I  came  to  a  town,  where  I 
rested  for  the  night.  The  next  morning  I  set  out  again  in  the 
direction  of  the  northwest.  I  continued  journeying  for  four  days, 
my  daily  journeys  varying  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  miles.  Dur- 
ing this  time  nothing  occurred  to  me  worthy  of  any  special  notice. 
The  weather  was  brilliant,  and  I  rapidly  improved  both  in  strength 
and  spirits.  On  the  fifth  day,  about  two  o'clock,  I  arrived  at  a 
small  town.  Feeling  hungry,  I  entered  a  decent-looking  inn  — 
within  a  kind  of  bar  I  saw  a  huge,  fat,  landlord-looking  person, 
with  a  very  pretty,  smartly-dressed  maiden.  Addressing  myself 
to  the  fat  man,  "  House  1 "  said  I,  "  house !  Can  I  have  dinner, 
house?" 

"  Young  gentleman,"  said  the  huge  fat  landlord,  "you  are  come 
at  the  right  time,  dinner  will  be  taken  up  in  a  few  minutes,  and 
such  a  dinner,"  he  continued,  rubbing  his  hands,  "  as  you  will  not 
see  every  day  in  these  times." 

"  I  am  hot  and  dusty,"  said  I,  "  and  should  wish  to  cool  my 
hands  and  face." 

"Jenny ! "  said  the  huge  landlord,  with  the  utmost  gravity, "  show 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  119 

the  gentleman  into  number  seven  that  he  may  wash  his  hands  and 
face." 

"  By  no  means,"  said  I;  "  I  am  a  person  of  primitive  habits,  and 
there  is  nothing  like  the  pump  in  weather  like  this." 

"Jenny!"  said  the  landlord,  with  the  same  gravity  as  before, 
"  go  with  the  young  gentleman  to  the  pump  in  the  back  kitchen, 
and  take  a  clean  towel  along  with  you." 

Thereupon  the  rosy-faced,  clean-looking  damsel  went  to  a  drawer, 
and  producing  a  large,  thick,  but  snowy-white  towel,  she  nodded 
to  me  to  follow  her ;  whereupon  I  followed  Jenny  through  a  long 
passage  into  the  back  kitchen. 

And  at  the  end  of  the  back  kitchen  there  stood  a  pump ;  and 
going  to  it,  I  placed  my  hands  beneath  the  spout,  and  said,  "Pump, 
Jenny  " ;  and  Jenny  incontinently,  without  laying  down  the  towel, 
pumped  with  one  hand,  and  I  washed  and  cooled  my  heated  hands. 

And,  when  my  hands  were  washed  and  cooled,  I  took  off  my 
neckcloth,  and  unbuttoning  my  shirt  collar,  I  placed  my  head  be- 
neath the  spout  of  the  pump,  and  I  said  unto  Jenny, "  Now,  Jenny, 
lay  down  the  towel,  and  pump  for  your  life." 

Thereupon  Jenny,  placing  the  towel  on  a  line-horse,  took  the 
handle  of  the  pump  with  both  hands  and  pumped  over  my  head 
as  handmaid  had  never  pumped  before;  so  that  the  water  poured 
in  torrents  from  my  head,  my  face,  and  my  hair  down  upon  the 
brick  floor. 

And  after  the  lapse  of  somewhat  more  than  a  minute,  I  called 
out  with  a  half-strangled  voice,  "  Hold,  Jenny ! "  and  Jenny  de- 
sisted. I  stood  for  a  few  moments  to  recover  my  breath,  then,  tak- 
ing the  towel  which  Jenny  proffered,  I  dried  composedly  my  hands 
and  head,  my  face  and  hair;  then,  returning  the  towel  to  Jenny, 
I  gave  a  deep  sigh  and  said,  "  Surely  this  is  one  of  the  pleasant 
moments  of  life."  —  Borrow  :  Lavengro. 

70.  Complex  Narrative.  —  Complex  narrative  (narrative 
with  plot,  or  plotted  narrative)  differs  primarily  from  simple 
narrative  in  that  some  check  or  hindrance  is  interposed  to  the 
forward  movement  of  the  action.  This  leads  to  a  conflict  more 
or  less  prolonged,  to  suspense  regarding  the  outcome,  to  a 
crisis,  climax,  or  point  of  greatest  tension,  and  to  a  con- 


120  NARRATION. 

elusion,  or  point  at  which  the  movement  is  brought  to  an 
end. 

If  simple  incident  is  compared  to  the  movement  of  a 
boulder  rolling  down  a  gentle  declivity,  complex  narrative 
may  be  compared  to  the  descent  of  the  same  boulder  down 
a  steeper  slope  on  which  there  are  other  boulders,  trees, 
houses,  and  human  beings.  The  rock,  moving  with  increas- 
ing swiftness,  encounters  on  its  way  one  or  more  of  these 
obstacles.  It  strikes  a  tree  and  is  deflected  from  its  course  ; 
it  strikes  a  house  and  tears  away  a  part  of  it,  frightening  the 
inmates  ;  it  strikes  a  man  and  kills  him ;  ultimately  perhaps, 
it  strikes  another  boulder,  larger  than  itself,  and  is  shat- 
tered to  fragments. 

Any  simple  narrative  may  be  turned  into  narrative  with 
plot  by. inserting  at  the  proper  point  an  obstacle  which 
checks  the  progress  of  the  action  and  leads  to  a  struggle  of 
some  kind.  This  fact  is  illustrated  by  the  narratives  below. 
In  the  left-hand  column  is  a  simple  incident,  in  the  right- 
hand  column  is  the  same  incident  transformed  into  a  com- 
plex narrative  by  the  introduction  of  the  thunder-storm, 
the  swollen  streams,  the  flies,  etc.,  as  obstacles :  — 

At  three  in  the  morning  we  At  three  in  the  morning,  we 
left  Leon  for  Galicia  on  horse-  departed  for  Galicia.  We  had 
back.  The  way  led  at  first  scarcely  proceeded  half  a  league 
through  a  wood  which  extended  when  we  were  overtaken  by  a 
for  some  distance  in  the  direc-  thunder-storm  of  tremendous 
tion  in  which  we  were  going,  violence.  We  were  at  that  time 
After  riding  about  five  leagues  in  the  midst  of  a  wood  which  ex- 
through  a  level  country  and  tends  to  some  distance  in  the  di- 
crossing  several  streams,  we  rection  in  which  we  were  going, 
began  to  enter  the  mountain-  The  trees  were  bowed  almost  to 
ous  district  which  surrounds  the  ground  by  the  wind  or  torn 
Astorga.  A  few  hours  later  we  up  by  the  roots,  whilst  the  earth 
arrived  at  our  destination.  was  ploughed  up  by  the  light- 
ning, which  burst  all  around  and 
nearly  blinded  us.  The  spirited 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  121 

Andalusian  on  which  I  rode  be-  enter  the  mountainous  district 

came  furious,  and  bounded  into  which  surrounds  Astorga  :  the 

the  air  as  if  possessed.     Owing  heat  now  became  almost  suffocat- 

to  my  state  of  weakness,  I  had  ing;    swarms  of  flies  began  to 

the  greatest  difficulty  in  main-  make  their  appearance,  and  set- 

taining  my  seat,  and  avoiding  tling  down    upon    the    horses, 

a  fall  which  might  have  been  stung  them  almost  to  madness, 

fatal.     A  tremendous  discharge  whilst  the  road  was  very  flinty 

of  rain  followed  the  storm,  which  and  trying.     It  was  with  great 

swelled  the  brooks  and  streams  difficulty  that   we   reached  As- 

and    flooded    the    surrounding  torga,   covered  with  mud    and 

country,  causing  much  damage  dust,   our  tongues  cleaving  to 

amongst  the  corn.    After  riding  our  palates  with  thirst, 

about  five  leagues,  we  began  to  —  Borrow  :  The  Bible  in  Spain. 

71.  Elements  of  Complex  Narrative.  — The  broad  features 
of  complex  narrative  are  the  same  as  those  of  simple  narra- 
tive.    Certain  elements,  however,  are  peculiar  to  it,  and  to 
them  we  shall  need  to  pay  particular  attention.     They  are 
as  follows :  (1)  the  Obstacle,  (2)  the  Plot,  (3)  the  Characters, 
(4)  Suspense. 

72.  The  Obstacle.  —  Since  the  obstacle  is  anything  which 
obstructs  the  movement  and  brings  about  a  conflict,  it  may 
take  a  great  variety  of  forms,  from  the  purely  physical,  as 
in  the  narrative  just  quoted,  to  the  purely  mental  or  spirit- 
ual as  in  the  following,  where  the  conflict  takes  place  in  the 
mind  of  the  character. 

Godfrey  rode  along  slowly,  representing  to  himself  the  scene  of 
confession  to  his  father  from  which  he  felt  that  there  was  now  no 
longer  any  escape.  The  revelation  about  the  money  must  be  made 
the  very  next  morning;  and  if  he  withheld  the  rest,  Dunstan  would 
be  sure  to  come  back  shortly,  and,  finding  that  he  must  bear  the 
brunt  of  his  father's  anger,  would  tell  the  whole  story  out  of  spite, 
even  though  he  had  nothing  to  gain  by  it.  There  was  one  step, 
perhaps,  by  which  he  might  still  win  Dunstan's  silence  and  put  off 
the  evil  day :  he  might  tell  his  father  that  he  had  himself  spent 
the  money  paid  to  him  by  Fowler ;  and  as  he  had  never  been  guilty 


122  NARRATION. 

of  such  an  offence  before,  the  affair  would  blow  over  after  a  little 
storming.  But  Godfrey  could  not  bend  himself  to  this.  He  felt 
that  in  letting  Dunstan  have  the  money,  he  had  already  been  guilty 
of  a  breach  of  trust  hardly  less  culpable  than  that  of  spending  the 
money  directly  for  his  own  behoof ;  and  yet  there  was  a  distinction 
between  the  two  acts  which  made  him  feel  that  the  one  was  so 
much  more  blackening  than  the  other  as  to  be  intolerable  to  him. 
"  I  don't  pretend  to  be  a  good  fellow,"  he  said  to  himself ;  "  but 
I'm  not  a  scoundrel  —  at  least,  I'll  stop  short  somewhere.  I'll  bear 
the  consequences  of  what  I  have  done  sooner  than  make  believe 
I've  done  what  I  never  would  have  done.  I'd  never  have  spent 
the  money  for  my  own  pleasure  —  I  was  tortured  into  it."  —  George 
Eliot :  Silas  Marner,  chap.  viii. 

In  the  more  serious  kinds  of  narrative  the  obstacle  may 
be  thought  of  as  representing  ideas,  laws,  customs,  or  social 
conventions,  with  which  the  hero  comes  in  conflict.  In  the 
opening  chapter  of  Silas  Marner,  Silas  is  opposed  not  only 
by  William  Dane  but  by  the  customs  and  traditions  of  the 
Lantern  Yard  brethren.  Ivanhoe  in  the  joust  with  Front 
de  Boeuf  fights  against  the  Norman  ascendency.  The 
Talisman  is  the  story  of  the  struggle  between  the  Occident, 
represented  by  Richard,  and  the  Orient,  represented  by 
Saladin. 

73.  The  Plot.  —  The  series  of  events  brought  about  by 
the  introduction  of  one  or  more  obstacles  is  termed  the 
plot. 

A  plot  may  be  regarded  as  a  complication  or  entangle- 
ment in  the  relations  of  the  actors,  followed  by  a  disentan- 
gling or  solution.  As  we  read  the  narrative  we  see  this 
complication  arise.  We  feel  the  growing  intensity  of  the 
clash  between  the  actors.  We  follow  the  conflict  to  its 
culmination  at  some  point  in  the  story.  Finally  we  observe 
the  consequence,  outcome,  or  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter. 
We  may  illustrate  these  elements  by  outlining  a  simple 
plot.  A  young  lawyer  who  belongs  to  one  of  the  leading 


COMPLEX  NAEEATIVE. 

political  parties  becomes  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  Prose- 
cuting Attorney  in  a  district  where  the  majority  of  the 
voters  belong  to  his  own  party.  Since  the  office  has  always 
been  held  by  some  member  of  this  party,  he  thinks  he  is  as 
good  as  elected.  An  obstacle,  however,  soon  appears  in  the 
person  of  an  opposing  candidate,  a  shrewd  and  unscrupulous 
politician,  who  has  become  possessed  of  evidences  of  corrupt 
practices  in  the  previous  administration  of  the  office.  The 
history  of  these  practices  is  disclosed.  There  is  intense  in- 
dignation. Many  of  the  younger  man's  adherents  go  over  to 
the  other  party.  The  campaign  is  conducted  with  increas- 
ing bitterness  of  feeling  on  both  sides,  which  culminates 
on  the  day  before  the  election  in  a  personal  assault  upon 
the  younger  candidate  by  the  henchmen  of  the  elder.  The 
tide  of  sympathy  and  opinion  now  turns.  The  election  is 
held,  and  the  younger  man  wins  by  a  large  majority. 

In  this  outline  we  may  detect  three  distinct  parts  of 
the  plot  which  deserve  special  attention.  They  are :  (1) 
the  beginning,  (2)  the  climax  or  height  of  interest,  (3)  the 
conclusion. 

74.  The  Beginning.  —  In  the  beginning  part,  sometimes 
called  the  exposition,  the  time  and  place  of  the  action  are 
told  and  the  characters  are  introduced.  The  beginning 
should  not,  however,  be  merely  descriptive  or  reflective. 
Since  the  essential  feature  of  narrative  is  action,  the  story 
should  move  forward  from  the  very  beginning;  and,  as  it 
moves,  the  setting  and  the  characters  should  reveal  them- 
selves as  elements  of  the  plot.  A  fine  illustration  of  the 
way  in  which  a  skilful  story-teller  will  make  the  setting 
and  characters  appear  as  the  action  unfolds  itself  is  seen  in 
the  opening  chapter  of  The  Talisman :  — 

The  burning  sun  of  Syria  had  not  yet  attained  its  highest  point 
in  the  horizon,  when  a  knight  of  the  Red  Cross,  who  had  left  his 
distant  northern  home  and  joined  the  host  of  the  Crusaders  in 


l-l  NARRATION. 

Palestine,  was  pacing  slowly  along  the  sandy  deserts  which  lie  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  Lake  Asphal 
tites,  where  the  waves  of  the  Jordan  pour  themselves  into  an  inland 
sea,  from  which  there  is  no  discharge  of  waters. 

The  warlike  pilgrim  had  toiled  among  cliffs  and  precipices 
during  the  earlier  part  of  the  morning ;  more  lately,  issuing  from 
those  rocky  and  dangerous  defiles,  he  had  entered  upon  that  great 
plain,  where  the  accursed  cities  provoked,  in  ancient  days,  the 
direct  and  dreadful  vengeance  of  the  Omnipotent.  .  .  . 

As  the  Knight  of  the  Couchant  Leopard  continued  to  fix  his 
eyes  attentively  on  the  yet  distant  cluster  of  palm  trees,  it  seemed 
to  him  as  if  some  object  was  moving  among  them.  The  distant 
form  separated  itself  from  the  trees,  which  partly  hid  its  motions, 
and  advanced  towards  the  knight  with  a  speed  which  soon  showed 
a  mounted  horseman,  whom  his  turban,  long  spear,  and  green  caftan 
floating  in  the  wind,  on  his  nearer  approach,  showed  to  be  a  Sara- 
cen cavalier.  "  In  the  desert,"  saith  an  Eastern  proverb,  "  no  man 
meets  a  friend."  The  Crusader  was  totally  indifferent  whether 
the  infidel,  who  now  approached  on  his  gallant  barb,  as  if  borne 
on  the  wings  of  an  eagle,  came  as  friend  or  foe;  perhaps  as  a 
vowed  champion  of  the  Cross,  he  might  rather  have  preferred  the 
latter.  He  disengaged  his  lance  from  his  saddle,  seized  it  with  the 
right  hand,  placed  it  in  rest  with  i$s  point  half  elevated,  gathered 
up  the  reins  in  the  left,  waked  his  horse's  mettle  with  the  spur,  and 
prepared  to  encounter  the  stranger  with  the  calm  self-confidence 
belonging  to  the  victor  in  many  contests. 

With  the  appearance  of  the  obstacle  —  the  Saracen  in 
this  case  —  the  conflict  begins,  and  the  plot,  as  the  saying  is, 
1  thickens/ 

75.  The  Climax.  —  In  every  complex  narrative  there  is 
a  centre  of  interest,  a  culminating  point  to  which  the  nar- 
rative looks  forward.  This  may  not  come  until  the  very 
end,  but  usually  it  occurs  at  a  little  distance  from  the  end. 
It  is  at  this  point  that  the  conflict  reaches  its  highest  ten- 
sion and  suspense  is  consequently  greatest.  This  juncture 
in  the  series  of  events  is  known  technically  as  the  clima<xt  or 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  125 

point  of  highest  interest.  It  has  also  been  called  the  turn- 
ing-point, because  at  this  point  the  readers  interest  usu- 
ally undergoes  a  change  :  in  all  that  precedes  he  is  interested 
in  the  conflict ;  in  all  that  follows  he  is  interested  in  the 
outcome  of  the  conflict. 

In  the  following  narrative  the  climax  is  probably  to  be 
found  in  the  words,  "  The  burn  was  roaring  now."  Up  to 
this  point  we  are  interested  in  the  way  in  which  the  min- 
ister struggles  against  the  prejudices  of  the  Auld  Lichts; 
from  this  point  on  we  are  interested  in  the  result  of  his 
exposure. 

Many  years  have  elapsed  since  Providence  flung  Mr.  Watts  out 
of  the  Auld  Licht  kirk.  Mr.  Watts  was  a  probationer  who  was 
tried  before  Mr.  Dishart,  and,  though  not  so  young  as  might  have 
been  wished,  he  found  favor  in  many  eyes.  "  Sluggard  in  the  laft, 
awake !  "  he  cried  to  Belle  Whamond,  who  had  forgotten  herself, 
and  it  was  felt  that  there  must  be  good  stuff  in  him.  A  breeze 
from  heaven  exposed  him  on  Communion  Sabbath. 

On  the  evening  of  this  solemn  day  the  door  of  the  Auld  Licht 
kirk  was  sometimes  locked,  and  the  congregation  repaired,  Bible 
in  hand,  to  the  commonty.  They  had  a  right  to  this  common  on 
the  Communion  Sabbath,  but  only  took  advantage  of  it  when  it 
was  believed  that  more  persons  intended  witnessing  the  evening 
services  than  the  kirk  would  hold.  On  this  day  the  attendance 
was  always  very  great. 

It  was  the  Covenanters  come  back  to  life.  To  the  summit  of 
the  slope  a  wooden  box  was  slowly  hurled  by  Hendry  Munn  and 
others,  and  round  this  the  congregation  quietly  grouped  to  the 
tinkle  of  the  cracked  Auld  Licht  bell.  With  slow,  majestic  tread 
the  session  advanced  up  the  steep  common,  with  the  little  minister 
in  their  midst.  He  had  the  people  in  his  hands  now,  and  the  more 
he  squeezed  them  the  better  they  were  pleased.  The  travelling  pul- 
pit consisted  of  two  compartments,  the  one  for  the  minister  and  the 
other  for  Lang  Tarn  mas,  but  no  Auld  Licht  thought  that  it  looked 
like  a  Punch  and  Judy  puppet  show.  This  service  on  the  common 
was  known  as  the  "tent  preaching,"  owing  to  a  tent  being  fre- 
quently used  instead  of  the  box.  Mr.  Watts  was  conducting  the 


126  NARRATION. 

services  on  the  commonty.  It  was  a  fine,  still  summer  evening, 
and  loud  above  the  whisper  of  the  burn  from  which  the  common 
climbs,  and  the  labored  "  pechs  "  of  the  listeners,  rose  the  preacher's 
voice.  The  Auld  Lichts  in  their  rusty  blacks  —  they  must  have 
been  a  more  artistic  sight  in  the  olden  days  of  blue  bonnets  and 
knee-breeches  —  nodded  their  heads  in  sharp  approval ;  for  though 
they  could  swoop  down  on  a  heretic  like  an  eagle  on  carrion,  they 
scented  no  prey.  Even  Lang  Tammas,  on  whose  nose  a  drop  of 
water  gathered  when  he  was  in  his  greatest  fettle,  thought  that  all 
was  fair  and  above  board.  Suddenly  a  rush  of  wind  tore  up  the  com- 
mon, and  ran  straight  at  the  pulpit.  It  formed  in  a  sieve,  and  passed 
over  the  heads  of  the  congregation,  who  felt  it  as  a  fan,  and  looked 
up  in  awe.  Lang  Tammas,  feeling  himself  all  at  once  grow  clammy, 
distinctly  heard  the  leaves  of  the  pulpit  Bible  shiver.  Mr.  Watts's 
hands,  outstretched  to  prevent  a  catastrophe,  were  blown  against 
his  side,  and  then  some  twenty  sheets  of  closely  written  paper 
floated  into  the  air.  There  was  a  horrible  dead  silence.  The  burn 
was  roaring  now.  The  minister,  if  such  he  can  be  called,  shrunk 
back  in  his  box,  and,  as  if  they  had  seen  it  printed  in  letters  of  fire 
on  the  heavens,  the  congregation  realized  that  Mr.  Watts,  whom 
they  had  been  on  the  point  of  calling,  read  his  sermon.  He  wrote 
it  out  on  pages  the  exact  size  of  those  in  the  Bible  and  did  not 
scruple  to  fasten  these  into  the  Holy  Book  itself.  At  theatres,  a 
sullen  thunder  of  angry  voices  behind  the  scene  represents  a  crowd 
in  a  rage,  and  such  a  low,  long-drawn  howl  swept  the  common 
when  Mr.  Watts  was  found  out.  To  follow  a  pastor  who  "read  " 
seemed  to  the  Auld  Lichts  like  claiming  heaven  on  false  pretences. 
In  ten  minutes  the  session  alone,  with  Lang  Tammas  and  Hendry, 
were  on  the  common.  They  were  watched  by  many  from  afar  off, 
and,  when  one  comes  to  think  of  it  now,  looked  a  little  curious 
jumping,  like  trout  at  flies,  at  the  damning  papers  still  fluttering  in 
the  air.  The  minister  was  never  seen  in  our  parts  again,  but  he  is 
still  remembered  as  "Paper  Watts."  —  Barrie:  Auld  Licht  Idylls. 

76.  The  Conclusion.  —  After  the  climax  the  interest  of  the 
reader  takes  on,  as  has  been  said,  a  different  character. 
Directed,  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  narrative,  upon  the  con- 
flict, it  now  shifts  to  the  outcome  or  explanation.  The 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  127 

reader  wishes  to  learn  the  consequences  of  the  battle,  the 
fate  of  the  hero,  the  solution  of  the  mystery.  It  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  conclusion  to  satisfy  his  curiosity  in  regard  to 
these  matters,  and  thus  to  bring  the  series  of  events  to  a 
fitting  termination.  Since  the  conclusion,  like  the  beginning, 
is  an  organic  part  of  the  plot,  it  must  not  be  an  arbitrary 
cutting-otf  of  the  action,  but  a  natural  and  necessary  out- 
come of  the  events  that  have  preceded  it. 

The  conclusion  may  be  of  at  least  four  different  kinds : 

1.  Tragic,  when  the  chief  character,  encountering  an  ob- 
stacle which  his  own  act  has  raised  up,  is  overcome. 

2.  Pathetic,   when    the   outcome,   actually   unfortunate, 
might  have  been  otherwise. 

3.  Cheerful,  when  the  character,  after  a  serious  conflict, 
succeeds  in  overcoming  the  obstacle. 

4.  Humorous,  when  the  conflict  turns  out  to  have  been 
based  upon  a  misapprehension. 

The  tragic  conclusion  is  exemplified  in  Poe's  Fall  of  the 
House  of  Usher,  the  pathetic,  in  Kale's  Man  without  a 
Country  and  Allen's  The  Choir  Invisible.  David  Copperfield 
is  a  good  instance  of  a  novel  with  a  cheerful  ending.  The 
humorous  conclusion  is  too  common  to  need  illustration,  but 
perhaps  Aldrich's  Marjorie  Daw  reveals  most  clearly  the 
elements  which  give  to  it  its  peculiar  quality. 

77.  Characters  of  the  Story.  —  In  the  greater  number  of 
fictitious  narratives  the  plot  arises  from  a  conflict  between 
persons.  The  hero,  or  chief  character  of  the  story,  in  his 
progress  toward  the  goal  of  his  desire  is  opposed  by  a  second 
character.  The  plot  then  takes  the  form  of  a  contest  be- 
tween the  two,  the  minor  characters  ranging  themselves  on 
one  side  or  the  other  according  to  their  interests. 

The  actions  of  the  characters  are  determined  in  part  by 
forces  from  within,  in  part  by  forces  from  without.  The 
inward  forces  are,  in  general,  dispositions,  feelings,  and 


128  NARRATION. 

acts  of  the  will.  A  man  is  driven  to  some  course  of  action 
by  ambition,  love,  despair,  jealousy,  or  other  emotion.  Con- 
fronted by  a  choice  of  good  and  evil,  he  decides  to  take  one 
course  or  the  other  —  that  is  he  exerts  his  will  —  and  a  train 
of  consequences  follows. 

The  outward  forces  are  such  as  arise  from  the  surround- 
ings—  the  so-called  environment  —  or  from  stress  of  circum- 
stances. They  may  be  either  natural  or  social.  A  simple 
illustration  of  the  former  class  is  seen  in  the  effect  of  the 
weather  upon  the  temper  of  certain  persons.  Less  super- 
ficial examples  are  to  be  found  in  Hawthorne's  Great  Stone 
Face  and  Thomas  Hardy's  Return  of  the  Native,  in  which 
natural  scenery  affects  profoundly  both  character  and  con- 
duct. The  term  social  forces  may  be  applied  to  the  influ- 
ences which  proceed  from  the  nature  of  the  community  in 
which  the  character  moves.  They  are  usually  embodied  in 
institutions  such  as  the  family,  the  state,  and  the  church, 
with  their  peculiar  laws,  customs,  conventions,  and  dogmas. 
Public  opinion  may  also  be  included  under  this  head.  For 
good  examples  of  the  operation  of  social  forces  of  various 
kinds  the  student  may  turn  to  Ivanhoe,  where  he  will  notice 
that  each  class  of  society  is  constrained  by  its  peculiar  tra- 
ditions: Wamba  must  submit  to  the  laws  of  serfdom,  the 
Templar  to  the  rules  of  his  order,  Ivanhoe  to  the  conven- 
tions of  chivalry,  even  the  King  to  the  rights  of  the  barons 
and  to  public  sentiment. 

Accident  is  frequently  employed  as  an  outward  force  in 
narrative,  but  it  should  be  used  sparingly  and  with  caution. 
Accidents  do  happen,  and  when  they  happen,  they  may  lead 
to  important  consequences  ;  but  a  too  frequent  use  of  this 
device  tends  to  break,  or  at  least  seriously  to  weaken,  the 
threads  of  cause  and  effect  which  should  bind  together  all 
parts  of  the  narrative  into  a  single  web. 

Although  a  character  may  be  shown  as  acting  under  the 
exclusive  domination  either  of  inward  or  of  outward  forces, 


COMPLEX  NAEEATIVE.  129 

in  the  best  narratives  the  two  are  intimately  connected. 
The  emotions  and  the  volitions  which  arise  within  the  mind 
are  shown  to  be  in  large  part  the  outcome  of  the  situations  in 
which  the  character  is  involved. 

The  forces  which  drive  characters  to  action  are  known  as 
motives.  An  action  which  appears  to  be  the  natural  out- 
come of  a  character's  disposition  under  the  given  circum- 
stances is  said  to  be  properly  motived  or  motivated.  Actions 
which  are  not  adequately  motivated  strike  the  reader  as 
forced  and  unnatural;  the  characters  appear  to  act  as  the 
writer  wishes  them  to  act,  not  as  real  characters  would  act 
in  the  same  situations. 

Character  may  be  either  real,  as  in  historical  narrative, 
or  fictitious,  as  in  novels  and  short  stories,  but  even  in  the 
latter  case  the  best  characters  are  those  which  are  taken 
from  real  life.  The  young  writer  will  do  well  to  follow  the 
example  of  the  great  novelists  in  this  particular.  Instead 
of  trusting  to  his  imagination  alone,  he  should  carefully  ob- 
serve the  persons  whom  he  knows  best  or  whom  he  finds 
most  interesting.  Such  characters  can  and  should  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  the  purposes  of  the  narrative  in  which  they  'are 
made  to  play  a  part. 

Certain  types  of  character  are  better  suited  than  others 
for  the  uses  of  plotted  narrative.  It  is  especially  to  be 
noted  that  an  excess  of  any  one  quality,  good  or  bad,  is 
likely  to  raise  up  obstacles  and  so  to  bring  about  conflicts. 
Absent-mindedness,  one-sidedness,  conservatism,  radicalism, 
obstinacy,  prejudice,  pride,  ambition,  bashfulness,  innocence, 
timidity,  deceitfulness,  carelessness,  selfishness,  vanity, 
treachery,  —  such  characteristics  as  these  easily  involve  the 
hero  of  a  story  in  difficulties  and  give  opportunity  for  the 
development  of  an  interesting  plot. 

78.  Suspense.  —  Suspense  is  the  attitude  of  expectant 
curiosity  with  which  we  watch  the  development  of  the  plot. 


130  NARRATION. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  sources  of  interest  in  narra- 
tive, but  to  use  it  properly  and  make  the  most  of  it  requires 
much  skill.  If  the  plot  moves  too  rapidly  the  reader's 
curiosity  is  satisfied  before  it  is  fully  aroused ;  if  the  plot 
moves  too  slowly  the  narrative  becomes  tedious  and  the 
reader  is  inclined  to  "  skip."  To  make  the  reader  wait,  but 
not  to  make  him  wait  too  long,  is  a  rule  which  good  story- 
writers  try  to  observe. 

Suspense  is  advisable  just  before  the  culminating  point 
of  interest  is  reached,  and  it  is  secured  usually  by  introduc- 
ing descriptive  details  or  explanations.  Sometimes  suspense 
is  secured  by  beginning  at  some  point  along  in  the  story, 
the  events  leading  up  to  the  first  scene  being  afterward  in- 
troduced as  an  explanation,  or  as  a  part  of  a  subsequent 
conversation  between  two  of  the  characters.  Description 
detains  the  attention,  but  it  must  be  relevant,  or  its  intro- 
duction is  resented  by  the  reader.  In  most  parts  of  a 
narrative,  however,  movement  rather  than  suspense  is  de- 
sirable, and  this  is  secured  by  reducing  or  omitting  descrip- 
tions, by  hurrying  over  details  and  condensing  lesser  actions 
and  events  as  much  as  possible.  Especially  is  movement 
desirable  when  the  culmination  or  principal  action  is 
reached,  and,  in  general,  those  parts  of  a  narrative  which 
portray  rapid  action  should  show  it  by  a  hurried  manner  of 
treatment. 

79.  Helps  to  Narration.  —  It  has  already  been  indicated 
that  description  is  frequently  used  in  narratives  of  all  kinds. 
Usually  description  forms  the  introduction  of  a  scene  or 
story,  giving  it  a  time  and  a  place  and  an  air  of  reality. 
Character  descriptions  and  portrait  sketches  are  also  em- 
ployed in  narratives,  and  their  use  is  obvious  both  for  detain- 
ing the  attention  upon  the  chief  characters  of  interest,  and 
for  aiding  in  the  appreciation  of  the  subsequent  actions  of 
the  characters.  Contrasts  of  characters  are  another  help  to 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  131 

narration :  two  unlike  characters  serving  to  set  each  other 
off  and  to  give  greater  distinction  to  both.  Contrasts  of 
scenes  are  also  helpful :  scenes  which  are  full  of  action  al- 
ternating with  scenes  of  a  comparatively  quiet  character. 
Transitions  are  everywhere  important  but  nowhere  more  so 
than  in  narration.  When  to  indicate  plainly  a  change  of 
scene,  and  when  to  leave  the  change  to  be  inferred  is  a 
problem  best  solved  by  noticing  the  practice  of  the  standard 
writers  of  narratives.  Episodes  afford  relief  to  a  reader 
when  they  are  introduced  into  a  long  narrative  of  intense 
action,  but  are  elsewhere  out  of  place :  the  short  story  and 
the  narrative  of  adventure  are  hindered  rather  than  helped 
by  the  introduction  of  episodes. 

Conversation  gives  life  and  variety  to  narrative  and  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  and  effective  ways  of  presenting 
character.  Its  proper  management,  however,  is  by  no  means 
easy.  The  main  principles  to  be  observed  are :  — 

1.  Conversation    should  have   point    and  purpose.      It 
should  either  (a)  bring  out  some  trait  of  character  essential 
to  the  understanding  of  the  plot,  or  (6)  should  help  carry 
on  the  action.    The  best  conversation  does  both. 

2.  The  personages  of  the   narrative   should   speak   "  in 
character,"  that  is,  they  should  say  what  is  natural  to  them 
in  the  given  situation. 

Conversation,  no  matter  how  brilliant  or  amusing,  which 
does  not  fulfil  these  two  requirements,  is  digression,  and 
should  be  rigidly  excluded. 

The  following  is  a  good  example  of  brightly  written 
conversation,  in  which  every  speech  helps  to  reveal  the 
character  of  the  speaker  and  at  the  same  time  to  bring  out 
the  main  point  of  the  dialogue  :  — 

As  I  sat  there,  gazing  now  at  the  blue  heavens,  now  at  the  downs 
before  me,  a  man  came  along  the  road  in  the  direction  in  which  I 
had  hitherto  been  proceeding :  just  opposite  to  me  he  stopped,  and, 
looking  at  me,  cried — "  Am  I  right  for  London,  master?" 


132  NARRATION. 

He  was  dressed  like  a  sailor,  and  appeared  to  be  between  twenty- 
five  and  thirty  years  of  age  —  he  had  an  open  manly  countenance, 
and  there  was  a  bold  and  fearless  expression  in  his  eye. 

"  Yes,"  said  I,  in  reply  to  his  question  ;  "  this  is  one  of  the  ways 
to  London.  Do  you  come  from  far  ?  " 

"From ,"  said  the  man,  naming  a  well-known  sea-port. 

"Is  this  the  direct  road  to  London  from  that  place?"  I  de- 
manded. 

"  No,"  said  the  man ;  "  but  I  had  to  visit  two  or  three  other 
places  on  certain  commissions  I  was  intrusted  with;  amongst 

others  to ,  where  I  had  to  take  a  small   sum  of  money.    I 

am  rather  tired,  master ;  and,  if  you  please,  I  will  sit  down  beside 
you." 

*«  You  have  as  much  right  to  sit  down  here  as  I  have,"  said  I, 
"the  road  is  free  for  every  one;  as  for  sitting  down  beside  me, 
you  have  the  look  of  an  honest  man,  and  I  have  no  objection  to 
your  company." 

"  Why,  as  for  being  honest,  master,"  said  the  man,  laughing  and 
sitting  down  beside  me,  "  I  hav'n't  much  to  say  —  many  is  the  wild 
thing  I  have  done  when  I  was  younger;  however,  what  is  done,  is 
done.  To  learn,  one  must  live,  master;  and  I  have  lived  long 
enough  to  learn  the  grand  point  of  wisdom." 
What  is  that?"  said  I. 

"  That  honesty  is  the  best  policy,  master." 

"  You  appear  to  be  a  sailor,"  said  I,  looking  at  his  dress. 

" I  was  not  bred  a  sailor,"  said  the  man,  "  though  when  my  foot 
is  on  salt  water,  I  can  play  the  part  —  and  play  it  well  too.  I  am 
now  from  a  long  voyage." 

"From  America?"  said  I. 

"  Farther  than  that,"  said  the  man. 

"  Have  you  any  objection  to  tell  me  ?  "  said  I. 

"  From  New  South  Wales,"  said  the  man,  looking  me  full  in  the 
face. 

"  Dear  me,"  said  I. 

••  Why  do  you  say  '  Dear  me '  ?  "  said  the  man. 

"It  is  a  very  long  way  off,"  said  I. 

•'  Was  that  your  reason  for  saying  so?"  said  the  man. 

"  Not  exactly,"  said  I. 

"No,"  said  the  man,  with  something  of  a  bitter  smile;  "  it  was 


EXPOSITION.  133 

something  else  that  made  you  say  so ;  you  were  thinking  of  the 
convicts." 

"  Well,"  said  I,  "  what  then  —  you  are  no  convict." 

"  How  do  you  know  ?" 

"  You  do  not  look  like  one." 

"  Thank  you,  master,"  said  the  man,  cheerfully ;  "  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  you  are  right  —  bygones  are  bygones  —  I  am  no  longer 
what  I  was,  nor  ever  will  be  again  ;  the  truth,  however,  is  the  truth 
—  a  convict  I  have  been  —  a  convict  at  Sydney  Cove."  —  Borrow: 
Lavengro. 

Exposition. 

80.  The  Nature  of  Exposition.  —  Description  aims  to 
make  the  reader  see  the  image  of  an  object  as  the  writer 
saw  the  object  itself.  Description  pictures  things  ;  it  offers 
itself  as  a  substitute  for  original  seeing,  hearing,  touching, 
smelling,  tasting.  Exposition,  or  explanation,  goes  deeper. 
Exposition  aims  to  make  the  reader  understand  the  meaning  or 
significance  of  the  object  as  the  writer  understands  this  mean- 
ing or  significance.  Exposition  interests  us  in  the  idea  of  the 
thing,  in  some  theory  about  the  thing,  in  some  explanation 
of  the  thing  rather  than  in  the  thing  itself.  It  may  employ 
descriptive  details,  but  its  main  concern  is  with  the  notion  of 
the  thing. 

In  the  following,  for  example,  Ruskin  is  not  describing  a 
particular  pool  of  water,  but  is  explaining  to  us  the  idea  which 
he  announces  in  the  last  sentence  of  the  quotation, — an  idea 
that  suggests  itself  to  him  as  he  looks  into  any  pool. 

The  fact  is,  that  there  is  hardly  a  roadside  pond  or  pool  which 
has  not  as  much  landscape  in  it  as  above  it.  It  is  not  the  brown, 
muddy,  dull  thing  we  suppose  it  to  be ;  it  has  a  heart  like  our- 
selves, and  in  the  bottom  of  that  there  are  the  boughs  of  the  tall 
trees,  and  the  blades  of  the  shaking  grass,  and  all  manner  of  hues, 
of  variable,  pleasant  light  out  of  the  sky  ;  nay,  the  ugly  gutter,  that 
stagnates  over  the  drain  bars,  in  the  heart  of  the  foul  city,  is  not 
altogether  base  ;  down  in  that,  if  you  will  look  deep  enough,  you 
may  see  the  dark,  serious  blue  of  far-off  sky,  and  the  passing  of 


134  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

pure  clouds.  It  is  at  your  own  will  that  you  see  in  that  despised 
stream,  either  the  refuse  of  the  street,  or  the  image  of  the  sky —  so 
it  is  with  almost  all  other  things  that  we  unkindly  despise. 

—  Modern  Painters,  Vol.  I. 

Gardens  and  towers  and  other  descriptive  details  are 
mentioned  in  the  following,  but  the  purpose  of  the  writer 
(Matthew  Arnold)  is  not  to  give  us  an  image  of  Oxford ;  it 
is  to  explain  to  us  the  influence  of  Oxford  through  the  ages. 

Beautiful  city!  so  venerable,  so  lovely,  so  unravaged  by  the 
fierce  intellectual  life  of  our  century,  so  serene  ! 

"  There  are  our  young  barbarians,  all  at  play  1 " 
And  yet,  steeped  in  sentiment  as  she  lies,  spreading  her  gardens 
to  the  moonlight,  and  whispering  from  her  towers  the  last  en- 
chantments of  the  Middle  Age,  who  will  deny  that  Oxford,  by  her 
ineffable  charm,  keeps  ever  calling  us  nearer  to  the  true  goal  of  all 
of  us,  to  the  ideal,  to  perfection,  —  to  beauty,  in  a  word,  which  is 
only  truth  seen  from  another  side  ?  —  nearer,  perhaps,  than  all  the 
science  of  Tubingen.  Adorable  dreamer,  whose  heart  has  been  so 
romantic  1  who  hast  given  thyself  so  prodigally,  given  thyself  to  sides 
and  to  heroes  not  mine,  only  never  to  the  Philistines  !  home  of  lost 
causes,  and  forsaken  beliefs,  and  unpopular  names,  and  impossible 
loyalties  !  what  example  could  ever  so  inspire  us  to  keep  down  the 
Philistine  in  ourselves,  what  teacher  could  ever  so  save  us  from  that 
bondage  to  which  we  are  all  prone,  that  bondage  which  Goethe,  in 
his  incomparable  lines  on  the  death  of  Schiller,  makes  it  his  friend's 
highest  praise  (and  nobly  did  Schiller  deserve  the  praise)  to  have 
left  miles  out  of  sight  behind  him;  the  bondage  of  "was  uns  alle 
bdndigt,  DAS  GEMEINE!  "  She  will  forgive  me,  even  if  I  have  un- 
wittingly drawn  upon  her  a  shot  or  two  aimed  at  her  unworthy 
son;  for  she  is  generous,  and  the  cause  in  which  I  fight  is,  after  all, 
hers.  Apparitions  of  a  day,  what  is  our  puny  warfare  against  the 
Philistines,  compared  with  the  warfare  which  this  queen  of  ro- 
mance has  been  waging  against  them  for  centuries,  and  will  wage 
after  we  are  gone? — Arnold:  Essays  in  Criticism,  First  Series. 

The  following  is  confessedly  explanatory,  and  may  be 
taken  as  a  typical  specimen  of  exposition  of  the  direct 
didactic  sort :  — 


EXPOSITION.  135 

Science  is,  I  believe,  nothing  but  trained  and  organized  common 
sense,  differing  from  the  latter  only  as  a  veteran  may  differ  from  a 
raw  recruit :  and  its  methods  differ  from  those  of  common  sense 
only  as  far  as  the  guardsman's  cut  and  thrust  differ  from  the 
manner  in  which  a  savage  wields  his  club.  The  primary  power  is 
the  same  in  each  case,  and  perhaps  the  untutored  savage  has  the 
more  brawny  arm  of  the  two.  The  real  advantage  lies  in  the  point 
and  polish  of  the  swordsman's  weapon ;  in  the  trained  eye  quick 
to  spy  out  the  weakness  of  the  adversary ;  in  the  ready  hand  prompt 
to  follow  it  on  the  instant.  But,  after  all,  the  sword  exercise  is 
only  the  hewing  and  poking  of  the  clubman  developed  and  per- 
fected. 

So,  the  vast  results  obtained  by  Science  are  won  by  no  mystical 
faculties,  by  no  mental  processes,  other  than  those  which  are  prac- 
tised by  every  one  of  us,  in  the  humblest  and  meanest  affairs  of 
life.  A  detective  policeman  discovers  a  burglar  by  the  marks  made 
by  his  shoe,  by  a  mental  process  identical  with  that  by  which 
Cuvier  restored  the  extinct  animals  of  Montmartre  from  fragments 
of  their  bones.  Nor  does  that  process  of  induction  and  deduction 
by  which  a  lady,  finding  a  stain  of  a  peculiar  kind  upon  her  dress, 
concludes  that  somebody  has  upset  the  inkstand  thereon,  differ  in 
any  way,  in  kind,  from  that  by  which  Adams  and  Leverrier  dis- 
covered a  new  planet. 

The  man  of  science,  in  fact,  simply  uses  with  scrupulous  exact- 
ness the  methods  which  we  all,  habitually  and  at  every  moment, 
use  carelessly;  and  the  man  of  business  must  as  much  avail  himself 
of  the  scientific  method — must  be  as  truly  a  man  of  science  —  as 
the  veriest  bookworm  of  us  all ;  though  I  have  no  doubt  that  the 
man  of  business  will  find  himself  out  to  be  a  philosopher  with  as 
much  surprise  as  M.  Jonrdain  exhibited  when  he  discovered  that 
he  had  been  all  his  life  talking  prose.  —  Huxley:  The  Scientific 
Method. 

81.  Characteristics  of  Exposition. — We  notice  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics  in  the  preceding  quotations  from 
Buskin,  Arnold,  and  Huxley :  — 

(1)  The  subject  about  which  the  writer  is  discoursing  is 
an  idea,  a  notion,  a  theory,  a  concept,  or  even  a  whole  phi- 


136  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

losophy ;  and  not  a  particular  thing  that  appeals  to  one  of 
the  five  senses.  It  is  what  the  right-minded  person  will  see 
in  despised  things  that  Ruskin  is  explaining  to  us  ;  what 
Oxford  means  to  Arnold  as  an  enemy  of  Philistinism  that 
engages  our  attention;  what  science  really  is  that  Huxley  is 
defining  for  us. 

(2)  The  writer  feels  that  the  subject  needs  explanation ;  it 
is  misunderstood  by.  most  people;  he  has  found  an  explana- 
tion that  simplifies  the  whole  complex  matter ;  and  he  offers 
his  simple  explanation  in  order  to  make  a  hard  thing  easy 
to  understand.     Ruskin  feels  that  his  notion  about  pools  is 
true,  and  new,  and  enlightening ;  Arnold  is  sure  that  he  has 
stated  for  us  the  mission  of  Oxford  as  it  has  never  been 
stated  before,  and  that  it  must  command  our  immediate 
assent;  Huxley   makes   us   feel   that  this   new  notion   of 
science  as  trained  and  organized  common  sense  might  have 
occurred  to  any  of  us,  if  we  had  only  thought  long  enough 
about  the  matter. 

(3)  The  writer  speaks  from  personal  experience.     He  is 
offering  us  an  explanation  that  he  has  thought  out,  or  hit 
upon,  himself;  and,  consequently,  he  assumes  the  role  of 
teacher  with  confidence.     Like  all  good  teachers,  he  aims, 
chiefly,  to  make  himself  understood  dearly.     The  explana- 
tion which  he  makes  out  of  his  personal  experience  is  a  new 
explanation,  the  only  true  explanation,  and  pains  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  all  possible  misunderstanding ;  he  must  use 
words  that  are  familiar,  must  illustrate  his  idea  constantly, 
must  proceed  from  old  and  familiar  things  to  the  less  familiar 
and  the  new. 

(4)  The  result  of  the  writer's  effort  is  finally  (a)  to  satisfy 
our  desire  to  reach  a  definition  of  a  thing  or  idea  whose 
boundaries  have  been  vague ;  and  (b)  to  satisfy  our  instinct 
for  classification.     Ruskin  is  not  only  helping  us  to  a  wider 
notion  of  pools  and  their  lessons  to  man,  and  thus  to  a  better 
definition  of  them,  but  he  is  helping  us  to  place  them  in  the 


EXPOSITION.  137 

class  of  things  that  are  spiritually  valuable.  Arnold  is  not 
only  defining  Oxford  as  a  force  in  civilization,  but  he  is  also 
leading  us  to  discriminate  between  educational  institutions 
as  either  (1)  those  that  work  for  true  ideals  or  (2)  those 
that  easily  surrender  to  the  false  ideals  of  the  passing  day. 
Huxley  is  not  only  defining  science ;  he  is  also  providing  us 
with  an  analysis  of  all  knowledge  as  either  (1)  trained  and 
organized,  or  (2)  untrained  and  unorganized.  We  shall  next 
consider  this  twofold  process  of  exposition,  —  definition,  and 
classification,  through  analysis. 

82.  The  Process  of  Exposition.  Analysis.  —  The  process 
of  exposition  is  always  an  analysis  of  the  idea  to  be  ex- 
pounded, —  an  analysis  ending  in  a  partial  or  complete  defini- 
tion and  classification  of  the  idea.  Whether  the  definition  and 
classification  reache3~by^the  writer  is  partial  or  complete 
depends  (1)  upon  the  possibilities  of  the  particular  case  in 
hand,  and  (2)  upon  the  immediate  purpose  of  the  writer. 

(1)  As  to  the  possibilities  of  perfect  and  complete  defini- 
tion and  classification,  it  is  doubtful  if  that  has  ever  been, 
or  ever  can  be,  attained.  The  progress  of  knowledge  seems 
to  render  perfect  and  complete  definition  and  classification 
an  impossibility.  If,  for  instance,  evolution  be  confidently 
defined  as  "  the  progressive  modification  of  species  by  the 
agency  of  natural  selection,"  some  keen  observer,  like  John 
Fiske,  is  sure  to  come  forward  with  a  further  modification, 
—  "  the  prolongation  of  infancy," l  —  which  may  make  neces- 
sary a  qualification  of  the  definition,  or  an  addition  to  it. 
There  has  never  been  a  classification  of  any  subject  that  has 
proved  to  be  permanent,  or  even  thoroughly  satisfactory  to 
the  maker  at  the  time  he  made  it;  for  something  significant 
is  always  left  out,  something  exceptional  is  still  to  be  pro- 
vided for. 

i  Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophij,  Pt.  II.,  ch.  xvi.,  21,  22. 


138 


EXPOSITION. 


(2)  All  that  we  can  hope  for  in  working  towards  a  defini- 
tion or  a  classification,  therefore,  is  that  it  will  serve  our. 
immediate  purpose,  —  to  render  perfectly  clear  to  our  reader 
the  idea  that  we  wish  to  convey,  and  to  provide  room  for  all 
of  the  thoughts  that  we  wish  to  present.  In  learning  to  do 
this,  however,  we  shall  be  helped  by  considering  perfect  and 
complete  definition  and  classification  as  a  possibility ;  and 
by  observing  the  rules  for  logical  definition,  and  for  logical 
division,  as  far  as  we  may  observe  them. 

83.  Rules  for  Logical  Definition.  —  To  define  an  idea  is  to 
put  it  in  its  appropriate  class  and  then  to  show  how  it  dif- 
fers from  the  other  members  of  that  class.  The  class  is 
called  the  genus;  the  characteristic  which  distinguishes  the 
idea  from  others  in  the  same  class  is  called  the  Differentia. 


'1  in    IDEA. 


TlIK    <,KM  >. 


THE  DIFFERENTIA. 


Art  is  .... 


Literature  is 


Nature  is.    .    . 


the  conscious  utterance 
of  thought   by  speech 

or  action 

the  written   record  of 
valuable  thought    .     . 


a  collective  name  for 
all  facts,  or  a  name  for 
the  mode  in  which  all 
things  take  place,  —  a 
conception  which  might 
be  formed  of  their  man- 
ner of  existence  as  a 
mental  whole  .  . 


to  any  end. 

having  other  than 
merely  practical  pur- 
poses. 


by  a  mind  possessing 
a  complete  knowledge 
of  them. 


LOGICAL   DEFINITION. 


139 


THB  IDEA. 


THE  GENUS. 


THE  DIFFERENTIA. 


Laws  of  Nature  are 


God  is 


Style  is     .     .     .     . 
Criticism  is  . 


general       propositions 
expressing • 


the  enduring  power 
which  makes  for  right- 
eousness. 

proper  words  .... 
a  disinterested  en- 
deavor to  learn  and 
propagate 


the  conditions  of  the 
invariable  occurrence 
of  phenomena. 
—  not  ourselves  — 


in  proper  places. 


the  best  that  is  known 
and  thought  in  the 
world. 


Rule  1.  —  The  logical  definition  should  exclude  from  the  class 
all  that  does  not  belong  in  the  class.  Thus  in  the  idea  of 
Art,  as  defined  by  Emerson  above,  there  is  no  room  for  any 
beautiful  thing  that  is  not  purposive.  The  words  "  to  any 
end"  compel  us  to  exclude  from  the  domain  of  art  every- 
thing that  is  without  theme  and  purpose.  All  "  happy  hits  " 
as  Emerson  himself  calls  them,  —  all  "accidents,"  belong  in 
another  class. 

Rule  2.  —  The  logical  definition  should  include  in  the  class 
all  that  does  belong  in  the  class.  Thus,  on  scrutinizing  Mor- 
ley's  definition  of  literature  above,  we  see  that  he  has  in- 
cluded all  that  gives  pleasure,  all  that  gives  a  personal  point 
of  view,  all  that  hints  at  the  man  writing,  all  that  we  call 
style.  Nothing  is  excluded  from  this  definition  that  should 
be  included  in  it. 

Rule  3.  —  The  logical  definition  should  be  expressed  in  terms 
that  are  simpler  and  more  familiar  than  the  term  defined.  Mill 
has  a  hard  task  in  hand  when  he  attempts  to  define  the  term 


140  EXPOSITION. 

Nature.  He  simplifies  it  for  us,  however,  when  he  uses  the 
words,  "  all  facts"  and  then  moves  on  to  the  expression  "  the 
mode  in  which  all  things  take  place,"  and  finally  to  "a 
conception"  etc.  Here  is  a  perfect  illustration  of  good  ex- 
position, which  makes  hard  things  easy  by  proceeding  from 
the  familiar  to  the  more  remote. 

Rule  4.  —  The  logical  definition  should  be  as  brief  as  possible 
and  should  not  introduce  any  derivative  of  the  word  to  be  defined. 
In  looking  closely  at  Mill's  definition  of  the  laws  of  Nature 
above,  we  are  moved  to  admiration  of  the  brevity  of  state- 
ment. We  experience  a  shock  when  we  read  that  these  laws 
are  really  only  "  general  propositions,"  or  forms  of  words ; 
but  on  thinking  further  we  see  clearly  (what  he  wishes  us 
to  see)  that  these  laws  are,  after  all,  nothing  more  than  man's 
truest  statement  of  the  facts  that  he  has  observed.  We 
see,  also,  how  a  bungler  would  easily  have  fallen  into  the 
blunder  of  using  the  word  natural  where  Mill  uses  the 
word  invariable.  No  one,  who  has  not  tried  seriously  to 
make  a  satisfactory  definition  for  himself,  can  appreciate 
the  brevity,  the  economy,  the  felicity,  of  Matthew  Arnold's 
differentia,  —  "not  ourselves";  or  Dean  Swift's  "proper 
words,  in  proper  places."  There  is  often  something  dy- 
namic in  real  definition;  Matthew  Arnold's  definition  of 
criticism  includes  a  call  to  missionary  effort. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  final  definition  stands 
at  the  very  end  of  a  long  process  of  trial  and  experiment. 
The  best  way  to  secure  acceptance  of  your  final  definition  is 
to  record  all  of  the  thoughts,  reflections,  new  starts,  and 
inspirations,  conclusions,  and  modification  of  conclusions, 
that  have  come  to  you  while  thinking  in  the  direction  of  a 
final  definition.  You  may  be  sure  that  the  best  method  to 
pursue  in  writing  a  definitive  essay  is  to  give  an  honest  ac- 
count of  your  own  mental  experience  while  thinking  of  the 
idea  to  be  expounded.  There  will  be,  on  the  way,  partial 
definitions,  perhaps  wrong  definitions,  corrected  and  en- 


LOGICAL  DIVISION.  141 

larged  definitions,  definitions  modified  by  new  facts  ascer- 
tained by  reading.  All  of  these  should  be  faithfully  recorded 
with  full  explanation,  and  illustration,  if  your  reader  is  to 
be  put  into  the  frame  of  mind  in  which  he  will  accept  your 
final  definition. 

84.  Rules  for  Logical  Division.  —  Complementary  to  logi- 
cal definition  is  the  analysis  that  leads  to  a  logical  division 
of  the  subject,  —  to   a    satisfactory  classification  of  one's 
material.     Here,  again,  it  must  be  noted  that  a  perfect  and 
complete  division  and  classification  is  hardly  to  be  attained. 
The  thing  to  be  aimed  at  is  such  a  division  as  will  simplify 
matters  and  subserve  the  immediate  purpose  of  the  writer, 
enabling  him  to  convey  to  the  reader  the  idea  which  he  has 
in  mind  with  brevity,  economy,  and  a  measure  of  grace. 
The  division  of  the  subject  offers  to  the  expository  writer 
his  greatest  opportunity.     He  may  divide  his  material  so 
that  the  important  things  cannot  fail  to  be  remembered ;  he 
may  divide  so  that  the  division  itself  shall  explain  his  idea  and 
persuade  others  to  adopt  his  view ;  he  may  divide  so  as  to  incite 
to  action,  if  action  is  desired.    A  happy  division  will  become 
memorable,  —  such  as  Matthew  Arnold's  division  of  the  Eng- 
lish into  Philistines,  Barbarians,  Populace,  and  the  Children 
of  Light;  and  so  will  an  unfortunate  division  like  President 
Taylor's,  "  We  are  at  peace  with  all  the  world  and  on  terms' 
of  amity  with  the  rest  of  mankind." 

The  rules  for  logical  division  will  help  the  writer  to  achieve 
brevity,  economy,  and  simplicity  in  his  exposition,  for  they  are 
based  upon  known  laws  of  mind. 

85.  Rule  1.  —  Logical  division  means  that  the  subject  must 
be  divided  on  one  and  only  one  principle  or  system.     The  result 
of  neglecting  this  rule  is  confusion  of  ideas.     The  impor- 
tance of  the  rule  is  clear  to  all  serious  people.     It  makes  a 
vast  difference  whether  an  economist  divides  his  subject 


142  EXPOSITION. 

into  (1)  Land,  (2)  Capital,  (3)  Labor;  or  into  (1)  Labor, 
(2)  The  Products  of  Labor;  or  into  (1)  Land,  (2)  The  Pro- 
ducts of  Land ;  or  into  (1)  Capital,  (2)  The  Applications 
of  Capital.  The  division  of  the  subject  will  indicate  the 
limitations  of  the  writer  ;  it  will  reveal  to  those  who  know 
the  subject  the  writer's  bias,  the  writer's  inclination,  the 
writer's  attitude  towards  the  general  questions  involved  in 
the  subject.  When  Ruskin  entered  the  field  of  political 
economy  he  brought  derision  upon  himself  by  the  new  classi- 
fications that  he  proposed.  He  had,  however,  one  strong 
point  in  his  favor,  —  the  clearness  and  completeness  of  his 
classifications. 

A  single  reading  of  Ruskin's  Fors  Clavigera,  Letter  V.,  in 
which  he  arraigns  the  accepted  political  economy  of  the  time, 
discovers  the  following  outline  :  — 

A.   The  essentials  which  ought  to  be  secured  by  a  true  Political 

Economy, 
(a)   Material  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)    Pure  air:  (J)    \\;iter;   (3)  Earth.     (Advantages  of 

each.) 
(6)   Immaterial  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)    Admiration;  (2)  Hope;  (3)  Love.    (Each  is  denned 

and  its  value  stated.) 

H.   What  under  modern  Political  Economy  is  done  with  these, 
(a)    With  the  Material  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)  The  air  is  vitiated  by  the  smoke  of  factories  and 

towns. 

(2)  The  water  of  rivers  is  made  foul  by  sewage. 

(3)  The  earth  is  made  a  deadly  battle-ground  instead  of  a 

life-giving  harvest  field. 
(6)    With  the  Immaterial  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)  Instead  of  Admiration  for  the  past  there  is  contempt 

and  conceit. 

(2)  Instead  of  Hope  there  is  lack  of  spirit  and  patriotism. 

(3)  Instead  of  Love  the  constant  instinct  of  man  is  as- 

sumed by  Political  Economy  to  be  the  desire  to 
defraud  his  neighbor. 


LOGICAL   DIVISION.  143 

It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  ideas  so  clearly  classified 
by  Ruskin  have  won  their  way  into  orthodox  political  econ- 
omy ;  and  the  reason  for  this  is,  no  doubt,  in  large  measure, 
the  clearness  and  simplicity  of  his  division  on  a  single  prin- 
ciple. 

If  a  writer  should  discourse  upon  the  "Kinds  of  Sen- 
tences," he  might  divide  the  subject,  on  one  principle  or 
system,  into  simple,  complex,  and  compound  sentences ;  on 
another,  into  long  and  short  sentences;  on  still  another, 
into  periodic,  loose,  and  balanced  sentences.  But  if  he 
should  divide  sentences  into  complex,  short,  and  loose,  he 
would  introduce  more  than  one  principle  of  division  and 
produce  confusion. 

Although  the  subject  must  be  divided  on  only  one  prin- 
ciple for  the  main  divisions,  each  group  of  subdivisions 
may  follow  an  entirely  different  principle.  In  Ruskin's 
outline,  given  just  above,  the  main  division  (A  and  J5)  is 
made  on  one  principle  (what  ought  to  be,  contrasted  with 
what  is)  ;  the  first  rank  of  subdivisions  is  made  on  another 
principle  though  the  same  division  is  made  for  both  A 
and  J3,  the  division  in  both  cases  being  (a)  material  things, 
(6)  immaterial  things ;  while  the  second  rank  of  subdi- 
visi9ns,  (1),  (2),  (3),  follows  a  third  principle,  air,  water, 
earth,  in  one  group,  and  admiration,  hope,  love,  in  the 
other,  being  component  parts  of  the  thing  divided,  whereas 
"  what  ought  to  be  "  and  "  what  is  "  are  not  component 
but  similar  parts  of  the  thing  divided.  This  difference 
between  component  parts  and  similar  parts  is  illustrated  in 
two  divisions  of  the  subject  "Tree"  ;  by  component  parts 
the  division  would  be  into  root,  trunk,  branches,  and  fruit ; 
or  into  woody  fibre  and  sap ;  by  similar  parts  the  division 
would  be  into  the  various  kinds  or  classes  of  trees. 

In  the  following  division  of  a  subject  for  historical  ex- 
position, we  notice  that  the  main  divisions  are  chronological, 
and  so  are  the  subdivisions  under  1  and  2;  but  the  sub- 


144  EXPOSITION. 

divisions  under  1(6),  3,  and  5  are  made  on  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent principle,  the  principle  of  cause  and  effect,  while 
the  subdivisions  under  4  are  made  on  a  still  different  prin- 
ciple, the  principle  of  specific  instances. 

History  of  the   Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope  from 
755  to  1303. 

1.  Origin. 

(a)  Pippin's  gift  to  Stefano  III.,  755  A.D. 

(b)  Agreement  between  Carolingians  and  Pontiffs,  800  A.D. 

(1)  Extent  of  concessions  to  the  Pontiffs. 

(2)  Result  when  political  unity  ceased  and  religious  unity 

remained. 

2.  Gradual  increase  of  power  up  to  the  time  of  Gregory  VI L 

(a)  Heinrich  III.'s  gift,  to  the  Papacy,  of  Benevento,  1053. 

(b)  Countess  Matilda's  bequest,  "  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,"  1073. 

3.  Rapid  accessions  of  power  under  Gregory  VII.,  1073. 

(a)  Gregory's  plans : 

(1)  To  free  the  Papacy  of  German  supremacy. 

(2)  To  increase  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 

(3)  To  make  the  Church  independent  of  any  monarch. 

(4)  To  rule  people  and  princes  in  the  interest  of  their 

salvation. 

(b)  Their  realization : 

(1)  Humiliation  of  Henry  IV. 

(2)  Quarrel  over  investitures.     Resulting  compromise. 

4.  Supremacy  of  the  Pope's  temporal  power,  1073  to  1250. 

(a)  Evidences. 

(b)  Final  fall  of  German  power  in  Italy. 

5.  Decline  and  loss  of  Pope's  temporal  power,  1295  to  1303. 

(a)  Results  of  the  quarrel  with  Philip  the  Fair. 

(b)  Failure  under  Boniface  VIII. 

86.  Rule  2.  —  Logical  division  means  that  the  subdivisions 
of  the  subject  (.1 )  should  be  mutually  exclusive  ;  that  is,  should 
not  overlap ;  (B)  should  together  satisfactorily  cover  the  field 
that  ought  to  be  included  in  the  subject ;  and  (C)  that  no  one 


LOGICAL  DIVISION.  145 

subdivision  should  be  equal  to  the  whole  subject.  The  reason- 
ableness of  this  rule  is  apparent;  the  difficulty  always  arises 
in  its  application  to  particular  cases. 

(A)  For    instance,    a  writer    on    ethics    divides   "Our 
Duties"   into  (1)   Personal   Duties,    (2)   Keligious   Duties, 
(3)  Political  Duties ;  and,  by  the  exercise  of  foresight  and 
care,  manages  to  avoid  repeating  under  one  of  these  divi- 
sions what  he  has  said  under  the  others.     His  observance 
of  the  rule  is  due  not  to  the  perfection  of  his  division,  but 
to  his  arbitrary  management  of  his  material  after  writing 
begins ;  for,  fundamentally,  the  three  divisions  are  not  mu- 
tually exclusive;  some  of  our  religious  duties  are  personal 
duties.     Practically  the  observance  of  this  part  of  the  rule 
is  possible  only  when  the  writer  arbitrarily  assigns  to  one  of 
his  divisions  certain  subdivisions  that  perhaps  might  with 
perfect  propriety  be  treated  as  belonging  to  two  or  three  of 
his  divisions,  indifferently;  and  the  best  advice  that  can  be 
given  to  the  beginner  is  this :  having  made  as  good  a  logical 
division  of  your  subject  as  you  can,  avoid  saying  the  same 
thing  in  two  places. 

(B)  The  second  part  of  the  rule  requires  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  divided.     The  superficial  student  of  our 
institutions  might  divide  "  The  Legislative  Government  of 
the  United  States  "  into  (1)  The  House  of  Representatives 
and  (2)  The  Senate.     If  he  stopped  with  this  twofold  divi- 
sion, he  would  show  to  those  who  know  the  subject  that  he 
really  was  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  field  that 
ought  to  be  included  in  the  subject;  for  an  essential  and 
influential  division  of  the  legislative  government  is  (3)  The 
Veto  Power  of  the  President.     To  omit  this  topic  from  the 
field  of  consideration  is  to  invalidate  all  that  is  said  on  the 
other  two  divisions. 

(O)    Recurring  to  the  division  of  "  Our  Duties  "  we  see 
that  to   a  truly  religious   person  all   duties  are  religious 


146  EXPOSITION. 

duties ;  this  division  of  the  subject  is  coextensive  with  the 
whole  subject.  When  such  a  fault  in  division  is  discovered, 
the  remedy  is  to  drop  the  topic  that  causes  the  trouble  and, 
using  it  as  a  point  of  departure,  to  make  a  new  division  con- 
sisting of  applications  of  this  topic  in  various  directions. 
Thus  the  division  might  be  (1)  Duties  to  One's  Self; 
(2)  Duties  to  the  State ;  (3)  Duties  to  the  Church;  (4)  Duties 
to  the  School,  etc.,  including  as  many  institutions  in  our 
divisions  as  might  be  necessary  in  view  of  our  purpose. 
The  remedy  is  not,  however,  complete.  It  is  sufficient  to 
serve  a  practical  and  temporary  purpose ;  yet,  fundament- 
ally, the  duties  named  under  (1)  are  involved  with  those 
named  under  (2),  (3),  (4),  and  the  rest.  A  perfect  division 
is  hardly  to  be  attained ;  what  is  wanted  in  a  given  case  is 
such  a  division  as  will  simplify  the  presentation  of  one's 
ideas  and  avoid  needless  repetitions. 

An  analysis  of  TyndalPs  lecture  on  "  The  Scientific  Use 
of  the  Imagination  "  shows  how  the  three  parts  of  this 
rule  have  been  observed  in  one  conspicuous  instance.  Divi- 
sions 2  and  3  are  (A)  mutually  exclusive,  (B)  satisfactorily 
cover  the  field,  and  (<7)  neither  2  nor  3  is  equal  to  the  whole 
subject. 

1.  Introduction. 

(a)   How  the  author  was  led  to  consider  this  subject. 
(6)    Statement  and  explanation  of  the  theme. 

2.  Instances  in  which  the  imagination  has  been  actually  used  in 

science. 

(a)   In  the  investigation  of  sound  waves. 
(6)    In  determining  the  existence  of  ether, 
(c)    In  determining  the  source  of  ether-waves. 
(</)   In  proving  the  existence  of  small  particles  suspended  in 

the  air. 

(1)  Leading  to  an  induction  as  to  their  general  distribu- 

tion. 

(2)  Leading   to  an  explanation  of  observed  facts  about 

them. 


LOGICAL  DiriSION.*  147 

(3)  Leading  to  verification  by  actual  experiments. 

(4)  Leading  to  an  inference  as  to  the  infinitesimal  size  of 

these  particles. 

3.   Instances  in  which  the  imagination  may  possibly  be  used  be- 
yond the  present  outposts  of  microscopic  inquiry. 

(a)    Precautions  that  will  be  needed  in  this  use  of  the  imagina- 
tion. 

(/>)    Inquiry  into  the  genesis  of  the  germ. 

(c)    Inquiry  into  the  source  of  the  theory  of  evolution. 

87.  Rule  3.  — The  divisions  should  be  arranged  in  an  in- 
telligible order,  each  one  leading  naturally  to  the  one  that 
comes  next.  The  three  most  common  schemes  of  arrangement 
are  (A)  by  cause  and  effect,  (B)  by  contrast,  (C)  by  contiguity 
in  time,  place,  or  thought. 

(A)  No  tendency  of  the  mind  is  stronger  than  that  which 
impels  us  to  seek  the  causes  of  an  existing  fact  and  to  trace 
its  effects  or  consequences.     The  plan  resulting  from  follow- 
ing this  tendency  is  simple  and  lucid :  — 

(1)  Statement  of  a  fact  or  a  group  of  facts. 

(2)  The  causes  of  this  fact  or  group  of  facts. 

(3)  The  effects  of  the  fact  or  group  of  facts. 

(4)  The  ultimate  significance  of  the  fact  or  group. 

(B)  Another  scheme  of  arranging  the  divisions  of  a  sub- 
ject is  by  contrast.     Two  divisions  that  are  apparently  in 
opposition  will  be  brought  close  together  because  the  truth 
of  the  matter  will  suffer  unless  both  are  kept  before  the 
mind,  or  because  they  are  correlative  facts  or  complementary 
facts.     The  discrimination  of  likenesses  and  differences  is 
a  strong  tendency  of  the  mind,  —  in  fact,  the  keenness  of 
our  discriminations  is  the  exact  measure  of  our  intellectual 
attainment.     It   is   natural,  then,   that  in   presenting  our 
ideas,  we  should  follow  the  order  that  reproduces  for  our 
reader   the  record   of   our   discriminations,  —  the  order  of 
contrast. 


148  EXPOSITION. 

(<7)  When  we  are  unable  to  discover  a  relationship  of 
cause  and  effect,  or  a  relationship  of  contrast,  between  two 
divisions  of  our  subject,  we  shall  often  determine  the 
order  by  a  feeling  that  the  two  divisions  are  near  to  each 
other  in  thought.  Division  b  will  find  its  place  because  we 
feel  that  it  is  closer  to  c  than  a  is  to  c.  This  is  arrange- 
ment by  contiguity.  The  clearest  examples  of  this  arrange- 
ment are  the  order  of  events  as  they  occur  in  time  and  the 
order  of  objects  by  their  nearness  to  one  another  in  space. 

It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  general  arrangement  of 
divisions  and  subdivisions  should  utilize  the  principle  of 
climax,  proceeding  from  the  less  to  the  more  important 
wherever  this  is  possible  without  interfering  with  the  opera- 
tion of  cause  and  effect,  contrast,  and  contiguity. 

In  illustration  of  this  rule  let  us  examine  the  following 
outline  of  Carlyle's  "Gospel  of  Labor,"  taken  from  his  Past 
and  Present.  The  first  three  main  divisions  are  arranged 
in  the  order  of  contiguity  in  thought :  2  is  suggested  by  1, 
"  gospel "  is  suggested  by  "  sacreduess,"  and  is  felt  to  be 
near  it  in  thought ;  2  suggests  3,  "  gospel "  suggests  "  per- 
fection." With  4  appears  the  arrangement  by  contrast; 
what  man  does  for  himself,  3,  raises  the  issue  of  God's,  or 
Destiny's,  part  in  the  matter,  4.  Divisions  3  and  4  are 
thus  for  the  moment  in  opposition,  but  the  apparent  con- 
tradiction is  resolved  at  once ;  God  or  Destiny  works  with 
the  worker;  the  two  facts  are  correlative  and  complemen- 
tary; it  takes  both  of  them  to  equal  the  whole  truth. 
Then  follows  arrangement  by  cause  and  effect :  5  and  6 
are  the  effects  of  3  and  4  together,  and  7  is  the  effect  espe- 
cially of  4.  The  concluding  division  is  an  inference  from  all 
preceding  divisions ;  it  is  apparently  a  case  of  contiguity  ; 
to  one  who  thinks  more  deeply,  however,  it  is  an  instance 
of  cause  and  effect.  Division  8  is  a  fitting  climax  ;  we  feel 
that  it  states  the  highest  fact  about  work ;  and  the  other 
seven  divisions  have  gradually  led  up  to  it. 


LOGICAL  DIVISION.  149 


G-ospel  of  Labor. 

1.  There  is  nobleness  and  sacredness  in  work, 
(a)   Hope  for  the  man  that  works. 

(6)    Despair  for  the  idler. 

2.  The  latest  gospel  is 

(a)   Not  "  know  thyself,"  for  that  is  impossible. 

(6)   But  "  know  what  thou  canst  work  at ;  and  work  at  it." 

3.  A  man  perfects  himself  by  working. 

(a)  He  brings  his  soul  into  harmony  with  the  universe. 

(b)  He  drives  out  doubt,  sorrow,  remorse. 

4.  Destiny's  only  means  of  cultivating  us  is  by  work, 
(a)    Work  causes  irregularities  to  disappear. 

(6)    The  Potter's  wheel  illustrates  the  mission  of  work. 

(c)  The  idler  is  the  Potter  without  wheel. 

5.  He  who  has  found  his  work  has  the  highest  blessedness, 
(a)   He  has  a  life-purpose. 

(6)    He  gets  force  from  God  as  he  works. 

(c)  He  gets  the  only  knowledge  that  is  sound. 

(d)  He  ends  all  doubt  by  action. 

6.  The  worker  learns  all  virtues  by  his  struggle  with  brute  facts, 
(a)   Patience,  (b)  Courage,  (c)  Perseverance. 

(</)   Openness  to  light,  (e)  Readiness  to  acknowledge  mistakes. 
(/)   Resolution  to  do  better  next  time. 

7.  A  great  worker,  like  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  will  conquer  the 

help  he  needs. 

(a)  From  a  blind  and  unsympathetic  public. 
(6)   From  resisting  Nature. 

(1)   Great  forces  will  silently  gather  to  help  him  make  the 

impossible  possible. 

8.  Work  is  religious  because  it  is  brave. 

(a)  Defiance  of  obstacles  brings  victory. 

(b)  Columbus  is  the  type  of  the  brave  or  religious  worker. 

Good  illustrations  of  arrangement  by  contrast  are  seen  in 
the  subdivisions  of  1,  2,  and  4  (6)  and  (c).  The  subdivisions 
of  3,  5,  6,  and  7  stand  to  one  another  in  the  relation  of 
contiguity.  The  subdivisions  of  8  require  special  notice ; 


150  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

(6)  is  a  specific  instance  of  a  truth  stated  in  8  and  8(a). 
Whenever  specific  instances  are  cited  to  show  what  is  meant 
by  a  statement,  and  whenever  comparisons  are  made,  it  is 
on  the  principle  of  contiguity.  The  statement  of  a  fact  is 
usually  felt  to  demand  immediately  a  specific  instance  of 
the  fact,  a  comparison,  an  analogy,  or  an  illustration.  Essen- 
tially the  instance,  comparison,  analogy,  or  illustration,  is 
repetition  in  the  concrete ;  and  repetition  stands  in  the 
closest  proximity  in  thought  to  the  thing  repeated. 

The  relation  of  the  subdivisions  to  their  respective  main 
divisions  is  by  cause  and  effect  in  1,  3,  4,  5 ;  and  by  con- 
tiguity in  6,  7,  8. 

88.  Methods  of  Exposition.  —  The  process  of  exposition  is 
invariably  analysis,  leading  to  synthesis  in  the  form  of 
partial  or  complete  definition  and  classification  of  the  idea 
to  be  explained.  But  the  methods  by  which  the  analysis  is 
carried  forward  are  numerous  and  varied.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  methods  have  been  named  and  illustrated,  as 
far  as  the  compass  of  a  single  paragraph  permits,  in  the 
sections  of  this  book  entitled  "  Means  of  Developing  the 
Paragraph-Theme"  (§§  18-25)  and  "Types  of  Paragraph 
Structure"  (§§33-46).  In  reference  to  these  methods 
(Definition,  Specific  Instances,  Comparison  and  Contrast, 
Causes  and  Results,  or,  logically  speaking,  Deduction  and 
Induction)  two  remarks  need  to  be  made  here  :  — 

(1)  On  the  larger  scale  of  treatment  permitted  by  the 
essay,  as  contrasted  with  the  single  paragraph,  these  meth- 
ods may,  in  a  given  production,  be  used  in  greater  number 
and  variety,  though  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  in  the 
single  paragraph ;  only,  now,  instead  of  a  sentence  or  two 
of  repetition,  definition,  restriction,  comparison  and  con- 
trast, and  the  rest,  we  may  find  whole  paragraphs  necessary 
for  these  several  functions.  Instead  of  the  word,  phrase, 
or  sentence,  of  introduction,  conclusion,  transition,  amplifi- 


METHODS   OF  EXPOSITION.  151 

cation,  enforcement,  or  illustration,  we  may  need  whole 
paragraphs,  or  groups  of  paragraphs,  for  these  purposes  in 
the  essay.  The  student  who  has  caught  the  idea  of  sentence- 
function  in  the  paragraph  will  pass  easily  to  the  analogous 
idea  of  paragraph-function  in  the  essay. 

(2)  Each  of  these  methods  may,  in  a  given  case,  rise  to 
the  importance  of  a  general  method,  dominating  a  whole 
mass  of  related  material  and  giving  it  specific  character  as 
a  definitive  essay  (like  Mill's  Essay  on  Nature),  an  essay  of 
classification,  arising  from  the  contemplation  of  numerous 
specific  instances  (like  Carlyle's  Hero  as  Divinity,  in  which 
the  effort  is  not  to  characterize  Odin,  the  individual,  but  to 
characterize  the  class  represented  by  Odin),  an  essay  of 
comparison  and  contrast  (like  Whipple's  Wit  and  Humor), 
an  essay  of  cause  and  effect  (like  Mill's  The  Subjection  of 
Women),  an  essay  of  inquiry  or  inductive  essay  (like  Spencer's 
The  Genesis  of  Science),  or,  finally,  an  essay  of  application 
and  enforcement,  or  deductive  essay  (like  Helps's  On  the 
Art  of  Living  tvith  Others). 

The  first  of  the  following  paragraphs  illustrates  well  the 
general  method  of  cause  and  effect ;  the  second,  the  method 
of  classification ;  the  third,  the  method  of  comparison  and 
contrast ;  the  fourth,  the  method  of  definition. 

There  is  a  cheerful  frivolity  in  vaudeville  which  makes  it  appeal 
to  more  people  of  widely  divergent  interests  than  does  any  other 
form  of  entertainment.  It  represents  the  almost  universal  long- 
ing for  laughter,  for  melody,  for  color,  for  action,  for  wonder-pro- 
voking things.  It  exacts  no  intellectual  activity  on  the  part  of 
those  who  gather  to  enjoy  it ;  in  its  essence  it  is  an  enemy  to  re- 
sponsibility, to  worries,  to  all  the  little  ills  of  life.  It  is  joyously, 
frankly  absurd,  from  the  broad,  elemental  nonsense  of  the  fun- 
makers,  to  the  marvellous  acrobatic  feats  of  performers  who  con- 
ceive immensely  difficult  things  for  the  pleasure  of  doing  them. 
Vaudeville  brings  home  to  us  the  fact  that  we  are  children  of  a 
larger  growth,  and  this  is  one  of  the  finest  things  about  it.  It 


152  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

supports  the  sour  Schopenhauer  theory  —  one  of  those  mislead- 
ing part  truths  —  that  life  consists  in  trying  to  step  aside  to  escape 
the  immediate  trouble  that  menaces  us. 

Now  the  lesson  which  Inness  learned  from  Barbizon  and  trans- 
mitted to  the  other  landscape  artists  mentioned  in  this  chapter 
was  that  a  landscape  should  be  a  portrait  of  nature,  and  therefore 
that  the  local  facts  of  the  scene  are  of  little  importance  to  the 
artist  merely  as  facts,  but  only  as  vehicles  of  expression.  He  will 
endeavor  to  give  expression  either  to  his  feelings  toward  nature, 
to  the  sentiment  with  which  she  inspires  him,  or  to  what  we  call 
the  life-spirit  in  nature  itself.  He  will  seek,  I  mean,  to  express  in 
his  rocks  and  hills  the  compression  of  forces  embodied  in  their 
solid  masses,  as  well  as  the  smiles  or  wrinkles  that  time  has  set 
upon  their  faces ;  in  his  elms,  the  upspringing  and  expanding 
energy  within  them  that  has  shaped  their  growth ;  in  his  locust 
trees,  the  grim,  sturdy  struggle  for  existence ;  in  his  skies,  the 
wonder  of  space  and  the  buoyancy  or  density  of  accumulated 
vapors.  Either  subjectively  or  objectively,  or  with  a  motive  bal- 
anced between,  he  will  seek  to  make  his  portrait  render  nature's 
expression. 

One  fact  about  our  literature  has  not  received  adequate  atten- 
tion—  the  fact  that  it  had  no  childhood.  In  its  beginnings  it 
was  the  record  of  a  people  who  had  long  passed  the  age  of  play 
and  dreams,  and  were  given  over  to  pressing  and  exacting  work. 
We  are  a  young  nation,  but  an  old  people;  and  our  books,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  English  books,  are  the  products  of  a  mature 
people  in  a  new  world.  The  world  in  which  books  are  written 
has  much  to  do  with  their  quality,  their  themes,  and  their  form  ; 
but  the  substance  of  the  books  of  power  is  the  deposit  of  experi- 
ence in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  a  race.  In  American  literature 
we  have  a  fresh  field  and  an  old  race ;  we  have  new  conditions, 
and  an  experience  which  antedates  them.  We  were  educated  in 
the  Old  World,  and  a  man  carries  his  education  with  him.  He 
cannot  escape  it,  and  would  lose  incalculably  if  he  could. 

The  meaning  of  Mugwump  is  shaded  by  time,  but  the  new  word 
still  lingers  in  the  American  language.  Nowadays  it  connotes  not 
mere  independence,  but  a  touch  also  of  what  Carlyle  would  have 
called  gigmania,  or  the  worship  of  respectability.  Originally  a 


METHODS   OF  EXPOSITION.  153 

mugwump  was  an  independent  with  Republican  antecedents,  pri- 
marily one  who  accepted  Cleveland  because  he  could  not  swallow 
Elaine.  An  exiled  Democrat,  like  the  thousands  who  voted  for 
McKinlcy  against  Bryan,  would  not  have  been  called  a  mugwump 
when  the  term  had  its  earlier  meaning.  The  word  independent 
has  lost  all  the  opprobrium  with  which  it  was  tinged  during  the 
first  Cleveland  campaign,  and  everybody  now  recognizes  the  im- 
mense weakening  of  party  lines,  due  to  the  split  in  the  Democratic 
party,  the  fading  of  war  prejudice,  the  lessened  interest  in  the 
tariff,  and  the  birth  of  new  issues,  in  which  Republicans  like  the 
President  have  taken  the  ground  from  under  Democratic  feet. 
Among  fairly  educated  rnen  to-day,  in  order  to  find  a  fierce  and 
narrow  partisan,  you  must  choose  an  old  man.  The  younger 
generation  feels  no  passion  at  the  party  slogan.  The  word  mug- 
'wump  will  probably  be  less  common,  as  it  loses  its  utility.  While 
it  lives  it  will  represent  gigmania.  "  Of  course,"  says  one  of  our 
correspondents,  commenting  on  Mr.  Jerome's  part  in  the  present 
New  York  crusade, "  gigmanity  hates  him,  but  it  does  seem  strange 
that  it  can  be  so  blind  as  to  fail  to  see  that  not  all  the  logic  and 
respectability  in  the  world  can  win  against  Tammany."  With 
all  our  society  columns  there  is  much  intense  Democratic  emotion 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  national  spirit  is  unwilling  to  at- 
tach itself  to  any  cause  in  which  respectability  and  decorum  seem 
to  overshadow  warmer-blooded  humanity. 

89.  Exposition  by  Narration  or  Description.  —  Instead  of 
these  methods,  exposition  may,  on  occasion,  adopt  the 
method  of  narration,  or  the  method  of  description,  or  a  com- 
bination of  the  two.  In  his  essay  on  Walking  Tours,  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  is  not  describing  a  particular  experience 
of  a  certain  day  and  date ;  he  is  giving  us  a  sense  of  the 
enjoyments  that  anybody  might  experience  on  any  walking 
tour,  and  he  finds  it  convenient  to  arrange  these  enjoy- 
ments loosely  in  the  time  order,  as  if  he  were  narrating  the 
events  of  a  day.  So  we  find  that  the  main  divisions  of  his 
essay  are  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  aim  of  the  true  walker  is  to  experience  certain 
happy  moods. 


154  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

2.  Sensations  experienced  at  the  beginning  of  the  walk. 

3.  The   best   mood   in   which   to  take   the   road  in  the 
morning. 

4.  Moods  of  different  walkers  during  the  first  few  miles. 

5.  A  genial  criticism  of  Hazlitt,  —  the  walker  should  not 
leap  and  run. 

6.  Gradual  change  of  moods  as  the  day  goes  on. 

7.  A  word  on  bivouacs  :  moods  that  come  when  you  stop 
for  a  rest. 

8.  Moods  at  the  end  of  the  day. 

The  following  shows  that  the  method  of  description  has 
been  adopted.  It  is  Macaulay's  exposition  of  the  Coffee- 
House  and  its  social  significance.  While  there  is,  in  places, 
some  hint  of  a  time  order,  the  conspicuous  characteristic  of 
this  exposition  is  the  descriptive  method ;  almost  every 
sentence  calls  up  a  picture  as  description  does ;  and  yet  it 
is  not  the  image  of  a  particular  coffee-house  that  we  are  in- 
duced to  think  about ;  it  is  the  coffee-house  as  an  institution. 

The  coffee-house  must  not  be  dismissed  with  a  cursory  mention. 
It  might  indeed,  at  that  time,  have  been  not  improperly  called  a 
most  important  political  institution.  Xo  parliament  had  sat  for 
years.  The  municipal  council  of  the  city  had  ceased  to  speak  the 
sense  of  the  citizens.  Public  meetings,  harangues,  resolutions,  and 
the  rest  of  the  modern  machinery  of  agitation  had  not  yet  come  into 
fashion.  Nothing  resembling  the  modern  newspaper  existed.  In 
such  circumstances,  the  coffee-houses  were  the  chief  organs 
through  which  the  public  opinion  of  the  metropolis  vented  itself. 

The  first  of  these  establishments  had  been  set  up,  in  the  time  of 
the  Commonwealth,  by  a  Turkey  merchant,  who  had  acquired 
among  the  Mahometans  a  taste  for  their  favorite  beverage.  The 
convenience  of  being  able  to  make  appointments  in  any  part  of  the 
town,  and  of  being  able  to  pass  evenings  socially  at  a  very  small 
charge,  was  so  great  that  the  fashion  spread  fast.  Every  man  of 
the  upper  or  middle  class  went  daily  to  his  coffee-house  to  learn 
the  news  and  to  discuss  it.  Every  coffee-house  had  one  or  more 
orators  to  whose  eloquence  the  crowd  listened  with  admiration, 


METHODS   OF  EXPOSITION.  155 

and  who  soon  became,  what  the  journalists  of  our  own  time  have 
been  called,  a  fourth  estate  of  the  realm.  The  court  had  long 
seen  with  uneasiness  the  growth  of  this  new  power  in  the  state. 
An  attempt  had  been  made,  during  Danby's  administration,  to 
close  the  coffee-houses.  But  men  of  all  parties  missed  their  usual 
places  of  resort  so  much  that  there  was  a  universal  outcry.  The 
government  did  not  venture,  in  opposition  to  a  feeling  so  strong 
and  general,  to  enforce  a  regulation  of  which  the  legality  might 
well  be  questioned.  Since  that  time  ten  years  had  elapsed,  and, 
during  those  years,  the  number  and  influence  of  the  coffee-houses 
had  been  constantly  increasing.  Foreigners  remarked  that  the 
coffee-house  was  that  which  especially  distinguished  London  from 
all  other  cities ;  that  the  coffee-house  was  the  Londoner's  home, 
and  that  those  who  wished  to  find  a  gentleman  commonly  asked, 
not  whether  he  lived  in  Fleet  Street  or  Chancery  Lane,  but  whether 
he  frequented  the  Grecian  or  the  Rainbow.  Nobody  was  excluded 
from  these  places  who  laid  down  his  penny  at  the  bar.  Yet  every 
rank  and  profession  and  every  shade  of  religious  and  political 
opinion  had  its  own  headquarters.  There  were  houses  near  St. 
James  Park  where  fops  congregated,  their  heads  and  shoulders 
covered  with  black  or  flaxen  wigs,  not  less  ample  than  those  which 
are  now  worn  by  the  chancellor  and  by  the  speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  wig  came  from  Paris,  and  so  did  the  rest  of 
the  fine  gentleman's  ornaments,  his  embroidered  coat,  his  fringed 
gloves,  and  the  tassel  which  upheld  his  pantaloons.  The  conversa- 
tion was  in  that  dialect  which,  long  after  it  had  ceased  to  be 
spoken  in  fashionable  circles,  continued,  in  the  mouth  of  Lord 
Foppington,  to  excite  the  mirth  of  theatres.  The  atmosphere  was 
like  that  of  a  perfumer's  shop.  Tobacco  in  any  other  form  than 
that  of  richly  scented  snuff  was  held  in  abomination.  If  any 
clown,  ignorant  of  the  usages  of  the  house,  called  for  a  pipe,  the 
sneers  of  the  whole  assembly  and  the  short  answers  of  the  waiters 
soon  convinced  him  that  he  had  better  go  somewhere  else.  Nor, 
indeed,  would  he  have  had  far  to  go.  For,  in  general,  the  coffee- 
rooms  reeked  with  tobacco  like  a  guard  room  ;  and  strangers 
sometimes  expressed  their  surprise  that  so  many  people  should 
leave  their  own  firesides  to  sit  in  the  midst  of  eternal  fog  and 
stench.  Nowhere  was  the  smoking  more  constant  than  at  Will's. 
That  celebrated  house,  situated  between  Covent  Garden  and  Bow 


156  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

Street,  was  sacred  to  polite  letters.  There  the  talk  was  about 
poetical  justice  and  the  unities  of  place  and  time.  There  was  a 
faction  for  Perrault  and  the  moderns,  a  faction  for  Boileau  and 
the  ancients.  One  group  debated  whether  Paradise  Lost  ought  not 
to  have  been  in  rhyme.  To  another  an  envious  poetaster  demon- 
strated that  Venice  Preserved  ought  to  have  been  hooted  from 
the  stage.  Under  no  roof  was  a  greater  variety  of  figures  to  be 
seen,  — earls  in  stars  and  garters,  clergymen  in  cassocks  and 
bands,  pert  templars,  sheepish  lads  from  the  universities,  trans- 
lators and  index-makers  in  ragged  coats  of  frieze.  The  great 
press  was  to  get  near  the  chair  where  John  Dryden  sat.  In 
winter,  that  chair  was  always  in  the  warmest  nook  by  the  fire; 
in  summer,  it  stood  in  the  balcony.  To  bow  to  him,  and  to 
hear  his  opinion  of  Racine's  last  tragedy  or  of  Bossu's  treatise 
on  epic  poetry,  was  thought  a  privilege.  A  pinch  from  his  snuff- 
box was  an  honor  sufficient  to  turn  the  head  of  a  young  enthusiast. 
There  were  coffee-houses  where  the  first  medical  men  might  be 
consulted.  Dr.  John  Radcliffe,  who,  in  the  year  1685,  rose  to  the 
largest  practice  in  London,  came  daily,  at  the  hour  when  the  Ex- 
change was  full,  from  his  house  in  Bow  Street,  then  a  fashionable 
part  of  the  capital,  to  Garraway's,  and  was  to  be  found  surrounded 
by  surgeons  and  apothecaries  at  a  particular  table.  There  were 
Puritan  coffee-houses  where  no  oath  waa  heard,  and  where  lauk- 
haired  men  discussed  election  and  reprobation  through  their  noses ; 
Jew  coffee-houses  where  dark-eyed  money-changers  from  Venice 
and  Amsterdam  greeted  each  other;  and  Popish  coffee-houses 
where,  as  good  Protestants  believed,  Jesuits  planned,  over  their 
cups,  another  great  fire,  and  cast  silver  bullets  to  shoot  the  king. 

90.  Exposition  by  Paraphrase  or  Abstract. — The  para- 
phrase, the  abstract,  and  note-taking  are  important  to  the 
student  as  methods  of  exposition,  since  a  large  part  of  his 
college  work  must  be  recorded,  if  not  for  others,  at  least  for 
himself.  Although  they  merely  reproduce  the  thought  of 
the  original  and  are  not  expected  to  add  to  it,  the  paraphrase, 
abstract,  and  notes  are,  essentially,  methods  of  exposition ; 
for  they  require  the  practice  of  analysis,  definition,  and 
classification,  each  in  its  own  way. 


METHODS   OF  EXPOSITION.  157 

The  paraphrase  is  a  reproduction  in  which  the  same  thought 
is  expressed  in  equivalent  words.  Its  object  is  to  make  the 
thought  of  any  selection  clearer  and  better  adapted  to  a  given 
class  of  hearers  or  readers  than  it  was  in  its  original  form. 
Practice  in  paraphrasing  selections  of  prose  and  poetry, 
whose  thought  is  already  clear,  will  give  facility  of  expres- 
sion and  variety  of  phraseology;  but  the  chief  value  of 
paraphrasing  appears  when  it  is  applied  to  selections  whose 
thought  is  more  or  less  obscure  and  difficult  of  apprehen- 
sion,—  thought  which  needs  explanation  by  restatement  in 
simpler  terms. 

The  following  rules  are  to  be  observed  in  paraphrasing: 

1.  Do  not  change  the  thought  of  the  original.     Change 
the  form  only.     Follow  the  thought  closely.     Reproduce  the 
meaning  of  the  figures,  in  plain  language. 

2.  Make  all  changes  in  the  interest  of  clearness.     The 
mere  substitution  of  definitions  for  difficult  words  is  not 
sufficient.     The  whole  thought  must  be  restated. 

3.  Try  to  maintain  the  dignity  and  spirit  of  the  original. 
Do  not  weaken  the  thought.     If  the  original  is  poetry,  guard 
against  inadvertent  rhymes  in  the  paraphrase. 

4.  Study  the  use  of  synonyms.     Sometimes  changes  in 
the  whole  sentence  are  necessitated  by  the  use  of  one  phrase 
for  another.     In  some  places  it  may  be  needful  to  leave  the 
original  unchanged. 

The  abstract  is  a  condensed  statement  of  another's  thought. 
It  presents  the  main  ideas  and  follows  closely  the  structural 
plan  of  the  original,  but  omits  unimportant  or  illustrative 
details.  The  abstract  is  an  outline  in  which  the  headings 
are  stated  in  complete  sentences  and  presented  in  a  con- 
nected discourse.  The  main  problem  in  abstracting  is  the 
problem  of  determining  what  are  the  main  thoughts  and  of 
selecting  these  for  presentation. 

The  most  important  rules  of  the  abstract  are  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


158  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

1.  Give  nothing  in  the  abstract  that  is  not  in  the  original. 

2.  Discover,  by  a  careful  reading  of  the  original,  the 
author's  plan  or  outline  and  follow  this  closely. 

3.  Give  only  the  main  ideas,  omitting  or  condensing  all 
illustrations,    repetitions,    and    explanations,   making    the 
author's  plan  of  treatment  and  his  conclusions  stand  out 
plainly. 

4.  Observe  the  law  of  proportion.     Condense  all  parts  of 
the  original  on  the  same  scale.     There  is  a  danger  of  repro- 
ducing too  many  details  in  the  early  part,  and  of  condensing 
too  much  in  the  latter  part. 

5.  The  author's  language  may  be  used  a  little  more  freely 
than  in  the  paraphrase ;  yet  the  author's  language  should  be 
avoided  when  his  thought  can  be  precisely  expressed  in 
simpler  words. 

6.  Make  complete  and  connected  sentences  and  aim  at 
clearness,  accuracy,  force,  and  plainness  of  statement. 

The  following  rules  will  be  helpful  to  the  note-taker :  — 

1.  Use  note-books  with  small  detachable  sheets  (or  cards 
of  library  catalogue  size)  in  order  to  secure  economy  of 
time  and  labor  when  recopying  is  necessary,  and  in  order  to 
make  future  additions  and  rearrangements  easy. 

2.  Leave  a  generous  margin  to  the  left,  or  write  on  only 
the  alternate  lines,  in  order  that  you  may  have  a  place  for 
revision,  addition,  or  rewriting,  and  a  place  to  note  your 
own  thoughts  and  comments  on  the  lecture  as  it  proceeds. 

3.  The  notes  should  follow  the  paragraph-structure  of  the 
lecture,  should  reproduce  the  lecturer's  outline  as  you  dis- 
cover it.     If  the  lecturer  numbers  his  points,  adopt   his 
numbering  in  your  notes. 

4.  Have  a  system  of  abbreviations  which  you  can  under- 
stand a  year  later ;  do  not  abbreviate  oftener  than  necessary 
to  keep  up  with  the  lecturer. 

5.  Take  down  in  full  the  short  significant  sentences,  the 


KINDS   OF  EXPOSITION.  159 

sentences  or  ideas  which  the  lecturer  repeats.  He  will 
usually  indicate  by  his  voice  what  he  thinks  essential  and 
will  hurry  over  what  you  need  not  take. 

6.  Omit  the  lecturer's  illustrations.    Never  try  to  copy  a 
sentence  which  you  do  not  catch  in  full. 

7.  Copy  accurately  all  names  of  books  and  people  men- 
tioned in  the  lecture. 

8.  Be  neat,  be  brief,  be  systematic,  in  your  notes. 

91.  Kinds  of  Exposition. — Certain  typical  kinds  of  ex- 
position have  been  developed  in  literature  as  the  need  of 
explanation,  interpretation,  or  criticism  has  been  felt  in  the 
various  fields  of  thought.  Thus  we  have 

(A)  Explanation :  as  of  a  process,  of  the  structure  of 
an  object,  or  of  a  principle. 

(B)  Interpretation:  as  of  things  in  nature,  of  human 
character,  or  of  social  situation. 

(C)  Criticism :  as  of  works  of  literature,  or  of  the  other 
fine  arts, —  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  music.     There 
is  no  essential  difference    in   process  or   method  between 
these  kinds  of  exposition:    the  process   is   the  same  for 
all  —  an  analysis  leading  to  a  partial  or  complete  definition 
and  classification  of  the  idea  to  be  expounded;  and  each 
may  use  any  or  all. of  the  methods  of  exposition  that  have 
been  noted.     But  explanation,  as  a  synonym  for  exposition, 
implies  an  impersonal  attitude  in  the  writer  towards  the 
subject  expounded;   it  assumes  that  one  man's  account  of 
the  matter  will,  if  correct,  be  the  same  as  another  man's ; 
and  hence  the  word  is  applied  almost  exclusively  in  the  field 
of  science.     On  the  other  hand,  the  word  interpretation,  as  a 
synonym  for  exposition,  implies  a  sympathetic  attitude  in 
the  writer  towards  the  subject  expounded ;  it  affords  room 
for  personal  idiosyncrasy ;    it  puts  a  premium  upon  the  in- 
dividual point  of  view;  and  it  assumes  a  deeper  insight  than 
scientific  explanation,  with  its  strict  accountability  to  proof, 


160  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

can  employ.  We  speak  of  the  scientific  explanation  of 
nature  and  of  the  poetic  interpretation  of  nature,  properly 
and  without  forethought,  hardly  aware  of  the  distinction 
that  we  thus  make.  Again,  the  word  criticism  emphasizes 
the  notion  of  external  standards  according  to  which  the 
exposition  will  be  made.  When  the  word  interpretation, 
rather  than  the  word  criticism,  is  applied  to  works  of 
literature  and  art,  the  implication  is  that  external  stand- 
ards are  not  to  be  appealed  to,  but,  instead,  we  are  to  have 
a  record  of  the  personal  feelings  and  personal  impressions 
of  the  writer  as  he  stood,  sympathetically,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  work  of  literature  or  art  to  be  expounded. 

Thus  while  these  three  words  —  explanation,  interpreta- 
tion, criticism  —  are  often  used  interchangeably,  they  really 
suggest  three  different  attitudes  towards  the  subject,  and 
the  writer  appears  in  the  role  of  (A)  scientist,  or  (B)  ap- 
preciator,  or  (C)  judge.  In  the  following  selections  Ruskin 
adopts  each  of  these  roles  in  turn :  — 

It  is  actually  some  two  years  since  I  last  saw  a  noble  cumulus 
cloud  under  full  light  I  chauced  to  be  standing  under  the  Vic- 
toria Tower  at  Westminster,  when  the  largest  mass  of  them  floated 
past,  that  day,  from  the  north-west ;  and  I  was  more  impressed  than 
ever  yet  by  the  awfulness  of  the  cloud-form,  and  its  unaccount- 
ableness,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge.  The  Victoria 
Tower,  seen  against  it,  had  no  magnitude :  it  was  like  looking  at 
Mont  Blanc  over  a  lamp-post.  The  domes  of  cloud-snow  were 
heaped  as  definitely ;  their  broken  flanks  were  as  gray  and  firm 
as  rocks,  and  "the  whole  mountain,  of  a  compass  and  height  in 
heaven  which  only  became  more  and  more  inconceivable  as  the 
eye  strove  to  ascend  it,  was  passing  behind  the  tower  with  a  steady 
march,  whose  swiftness  must  in  reality  have  been- that  of  a  tem- 
pest :  yet,  along  all  the  ravines  of  vapor,  precipice  kept  pace  with 
precipice,  and  not  one  thrust  another.  —  Ruskin:  The  Eagle's  Nest. 

The  Spirit  in  the  plant  —  that  is  to  say,  its  power  of  gathering 
dead  matter  out  of  the  wreck  round  it,  and  shaping  it  into  its  own 
chosen  shape  —  is,  of  course,  strongest  at  the  moment  of  its  flower- 


KINDS  OF  EXPOSITION.  161 

ing,  for  it  then  not  only  gathers,  but  forms,  with  the  greatest 
energy. 

And  where  this  Life  is  in  it  at  full  power,  its  form  becomes 
invested  with  aspects  that  are  chiefly  delightful  to  our  own  human 
passions;  namely,  first,  with  the  loveliest  outlines  of  shape;  and, 
secondly,  with  the  most  brilliant  phases  of  the  primary  colors, 
blue,  yellow,  and  red,  or  white,  the  unison  of  all ;  and,  to  make  it 
all  more  strange,  this  time  of  peculiar  and  perfect  glory  is  associ- 
ated with  relations  of  the  plants  or  blossoms  to  each  other,  corre- 
spondent to  the  joy  of  love  in  human  creatures,  and  having  the 
same  object  in  the  continuance  of  the  race.  Only,  with  respect  to 
plants,  as  animals,  we  are  wrong  in  speaking  as  if  the  object  of 
this  strong  life  were  only  the  bequeathing  of  itself.  The  flower 
is  the  end  or  proper  object  of  the  seed,  not  the  seed  of  the  flower. 
The  reason  for  seeds  is  that  flowers  may  be ;  not  the  reason  of 
flowers  that  seeds  may  be.  The  flower  itself  is  the  creature  which 
the  spirit  makes;  only,  in  connection  with  its  perfectness,  is  placed 
the  giving  birth  to  its  successor. 

The  main  fact  then  about  a  flower  is  that  it  is  the  part  of  the 
plant's  form  developed  at  the  moment  of  its  iutensest  life:  and 
this  inner  rapture  is  usually  marked  externally  for  us  by  the  flush 
of  one  or  more  of  the  primary  colors. 

—  Ruskin  :  The  Queen  of  the  Air. 

You  must  have  the  right  moral  state  first,  or  you  cannot  have 
the  art.  But  when  the  art  is  once  obtained,  its  reflected  action  en- 
hances and  completes  the  moral  state  out  of  which  it  arose,  and, 
above  all,  communicates  the  exaltation  to  other  minds  which  are 
already  morally  capable  of  the  like. 

For  instance,  take  the  art  of  singing,  and  the  simplest  perfect 
master  of  it  (up  to  the  limits  of  his  nature)  whom  you  can  find  — 
a  skylark.  From  him  you  may  learn  what  it  is  to  "  sing  for  joy.'* 
You  must  get  the  moral  state  first,  the  pure  gladness,  then  give  it 
finished  expression;  and  it  is  perfected  in  itself,  and  made  com- 
municable to  other  creatures  capable  of  such  joy.  But  it  is  incom- 
municable to  those  who  are  not  prepared  to  receive  it. 

Now,  all  right  human  song  is,  similarly,  the  finished  expression, 
by  art,  of  the  joy  or  grief  of  noble  persons,  for  right  causes.  And 
accurately  in  proportion  to  the  Tightness  of  the  cause,  and  purity 


162  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

of  the  emotion,  is  the  possibility  of  the  fine  art.  A  maiden  may 
sing  of  her  lost  love,  but  a  miser  cannot  sing  of  his  lost  money. 
And  with  absolute  precision  from  highest  to  lowest,  the  fineness  of 
the  possible  art  is  an  index  of  the  moral  purity  and  majesty  of  the 
emotion  it  expresses.  You  may  test  it  practically  at  any  instant. 
Question  with  yourself  concerning  any  feeling  that  has  taken 
strong  possession  of  your  mind,  "  Could  this  be  sung  by  a  master, 
and  sung  nobly,  with  a  true  melody  and  art  ?"  Then  it  is  a  right 
feeling.  Could  it  not  be  sung  at  all,  or  only  sung  ludicrously? 
It  is  a  base  one.  And  that  is  so  in  all  the  arts;  so  that  with  math- 
ematical precision,  subject  to  no  error  or  exception,  the  art  of  a 
nation,  so  far  as  it  exists,  is  an  exponent  of  its  ethical  state. 

An  exponent,  observe,  and  exalting  influence;  but  not  the  root 
or  cause.  You  cannot  paint  or  sing  yourselves  into  being  good 
men ;  you  must  be  good  men  before  you  can  either  paint  or  sing, 
and  then  the  color  and  sound  will  complete  in  you  all  that  is 
best.  ...  As  soon  as  we  begin  our  real  work,  and  you  have 
learned  what  it  is  to  draw  a  true  line,  I  shall  be  able  to  make 
manifest  to  you  —  and  indisputably  so — that  the  day's  work  of  a 
man  like  Mantegna  or  Paul  Veronese  consists  of  an  unfaltering, 
uninterrupted  succession  of  movements  of  the  hand  more  precise 
than  those  of  the  finest  fencer;  the  pencil  leaving  one  point  and 
arriving  at  another,  not  only  with  unerring  precision  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  line,  but  with  an  unerring  and  yet  varied  course  — 
sometimes  over  spaces  a  foot  or  more  in  extent  —  yet  a  course 
so  determined  everywhere  that  either  of  these  men  could,  and 
Veronese  often  does,  draw  a  finished  profile,  or  any  other  portion 
of  the  contour  of  a  face,  with  one  line,  not  afterwards  changed. 
Try,  first,  to  realize  to  yourselves  the  muscular  precision  of  that 
action,  and  the  intellectual  strain  of  it ;  for  the  movement  of  a 
fencer  is  perfect  in  practised  monotony ;  but  the  movement  of  the 
hand  of  a  great  painter  is  at  every  instant  governed  by  direct  and 
new  intention .  Then  imagine  that  muscular  firmness  and  subtlety, 
and  the  instantaneously  selective  an dordinate  energy  of  the  brain, 
sustained  all  day  long,  not  only  without  fatigue,  but  with  a  visible 
joy  in  the  exertion,  like  that  which  an  eagle  seems  to  take  in  the 
wave  of  his  wings;  and  this  all  life  long,  and  through  long  life, 
not  only  without  failure  of  power,  but  with  visible  increase  of  it, 
until  the  actually  organic  changes  of  old  age.  And  then  consider, 


KINDS   OF  EXPOSITION.  163 

so  far  as  you  know  anything  of  physiology,  what  sort  of  an  ethical 
etate  of  body  and  inind  that  means !  —  ethic  through  ages  past  I 
what  fineness  of  race  there  must  be  to  get  it,  what  exquisite  balance 
and  symmetry  of  the  vital  powers  1  And  then,  finally,  determine 
for  yourselves  whether  a  manhood  like  that  is  consistent  with  any 
viciousness  of  soul,  with  any  mean  anxiety,  any  gnawing  lust,  any 
wretchedness  of  spite  or  remorse,  any  consciousness  of  rebellion 
against  law  of  God  or  man,  or  any  actual,  though  unconscious, 
violation  of  even  the  least  law  to  which  obedience  is  essential  for 
the  glory  of  life,  and  the  pleasing  of  its  Giver.  —  Ruskin :  Lectures 
on  Art,  sees.  66,  67,  68. 

But  also,  remember,  that  the  art-gift  itself  is  only  the  result  of 
the  moral  character  of  generations.  A  bad  woman  may  have  a 
sweet  voice ;  but  that  sweetness  of  voice  comes  of  the  past  morality 
of  her  race.  That  she  can  sing  with  it  at  all,  she  owes  to  the  de- 
termination of  laws  of  music  by  the  morality  of  the  past.  Every 
act,  every  impulse,  of  virtue  and  vice,  affects  in  any  creature,  face, 
voice,  nervous  power,  and  vigor  and  harmony  of  invention,  at 
once.  Perseverance  in  Tightness  of  human  conduct,  renders,  after 
a  certain  number  of  generations,  human  art  possible;  every  sin 
clouds  it,  be  it  ever  so  little  a  one ;  and  persistent  vicious  living 
and  following  of  pleasure  render,  after  a  certain  number  of  gen- 
erations, all  art  impossible.  Men  are  deceived  by  the  long-suffering 
of  the  laws  of  nature ;  and  mistake,  in  a  nation,  the  reward  of  the 
virtue  of  its  sires  for  the  issue  of  its  own  sins.  The  time  of  their 
visitation  will  come,  and  that  inevitably;  for,  it  is  always  true, 
that  if  the  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes,  the  children's  teeth  are 
set  on  edge.  And  for  the  individual,  as  soon  as  you  have  learned  to 
read,  you  may,  as  I  said,  know  him  to  the  heart's  core,  through  his 
art.  Let  his  art-gift  be  never  so  great,  and  cultivated  to  the  height 
by  the  schools  of  a  great  race  of  men ;  and  it  is  still  but  a  tapestry 
thrown  over  his  own  being  and  inner  soul ;  and  the  bearing  of  it 
will  show,  infallibly,  whether  it  hangs  on  a  man,  or  a  skeleton. 
If  you  are  dim-eyed,  you  may  not  see  the  difference  in  the  fall  of 
the  folds  at  first,  but  learn  how  to  look,  and  the  folds  themselves 
will  become  transparent,  and  you  shall  see  through  them  the 
death's  shape,  or  the  divine  one,  making  the  tissue  above  it  as  a 
cloud  of  light,  or  as  a  winding-sheet.  —  Ruskin  :  Queen  of  the  Air. 


164  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

Of  course  the  writer  may  adopt  two  or  even  all  of  these 
roles  —  scientist,  appreciator,  judge  —  in  the  same  essay; 
carrying  them  along  together  or  taking  them  up  in  turn. 
We  may  notice  this  in  the  reviews  that  appear  in  the  monthly 
magazines  and  in  the  essays  of  such  writers  as  Macaulay, 
De  Quincey,  and  Carlyle,  as  well  as  in  the  editorials  of 
our  newspapers.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  didactic  spirit 
forces  the  scientist  and  the  judge  in  the  writer  more  often 
to  the  fore.  Whereas,  essays  that  are  familiar  in  toue,  like 
those  of  Lamb,  Steele,  Addison,  and  Thackeray,  bring  out  the 
appreciator  in  the  writer.  Literary  essays  and  book  reviews 
reveal  most  clearly  the  appreciator  or  the  critic,  as  the  spirit 
of  either  dominates  the  writer.  The  following  gathers  into 
an  orderly  plan  some  of  the  matters  of  which  the  book  re- 
view may  treat.  The  prevailing  spirit  of  the  topics  is  criti- 
cal and  scientific ;  yet  most  of  those  under  A  and  at  least 
the  first  three  under  B  seem  to  be  conceived  in  the  spirit  of 
the  interpreter. 

A.  Historical:  — 

(1)  Sources  of  the  work. 

(•J)  Cause,  Occasion,  Purpose  —  Dim  or  apparent? 

(3)  Circumstances  under  which  the  work  was  produced. 

(4)  Relation  of  the  work  to  its  author. 

(5)  Relation  to  the  time  in  which  it  was  written. 

(6)  Effect  of  the  work  upon  the  public. 

B.  Descriptive :  — 

(1)  Brief  sketch  of  the  subject-matter— Plot. 

(2)  Characters  —  Their  qualities  as  persons,  relative  impor- 

tance, relation  to  one  another;  contrasting 
characters;  what  each  is  intended  to  bring 
out. 

(3)  Art  in  presenting  scenes  and  characters. 

(4)  Literary  Qualities. 

(a)    External  Form  :  — 

(1)    Words  —  Peculiar    forms,   meanings,    use,    eu- 
phony, simplicity. 


ARGUMENTA  TION.  165 

(2)  Phrases  —  Idiomatic  or  foreign  ? 

(3)  Sentences  —  Simple   or  involved  ?      Smooth  or 

rough  ?    Compact  or  loose  ?    Order  of  sentence 
elements. 

(4)  Figures — Numerous?    Kinds?     Useful  or  or- 

namental ? 

(5)  Paragraphs  —  Attention  paid  to  structure  and 

connection  ? 

(6)  Qualities     of     Style  —  Simplicity,     clearness, 

strength,  pathos,  melody,  harmony,  taste. 
(6)    Internal  Structure  —  Are  the  laws  of  unity,  selection, 

proportion,  sequence,  variety,  observed? 
(5)   Qualities  of  mind   displayed  —  Emotional,   intellectual, 

moral,  or  spiritual  ? 
C.    Critical:  — 

(1)  Is  the  evident  object  of  the  work  attained? 

(2)  Comparison  of  this  with  other  works  of  the  same  author. 

(3)  Rank  among  works  of  the  same  kind  written  by  others. 

(4)  Its  value  and  its  lesson. 

(5)  Judge  the  work  by  the  best  of  its  kind,  by  the  laws  of  its 

process  and  by  literary  laws  in  general. 

Argumentation. 

92.  Definition.  —  Argumentation  has  been  defined  as  a 
connected  series  of  statements  or  reasons  intended  to  establish  a 
proposition.  "  An  argument,"  says  Bain,  "  is  a  fact,  principle, 
or  a  set  of  facts  or  of  principles  adduced  as  evidence  of  some 
other  fact  or  principle."  To  illustrate :  the  fact  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  prisoners  in  our  penitentiaries  are  ignorant 
men  is  adduced  as  evidence  of  the  principle  that  ignorance 
breeds  crime.  It  is  evident  that  to  be  of  value  as  an  argu- 
ment the  statement  as  to  the  large  proportion  of  ignorant 
men  among  the  prisoners  in  the  penitentiaries  must,  first, 
either  be  admitted  to  be  true  or  must  be  shown  to  be  true 
by  statistics;  secondly,  the  same  statement  must  also  be 
admitted  or  shown  by  statistics  to  have  been  generally  true 


166  WHOLE  COMPOSITIONS. 

for  a  long  period  and  likely  to  be  true  in  the  future.     Both 
of  these  conditions  are  essential  to  a  valid  argument. 

Even  when  one  doesn't  believe  in  the  proposition  that  he 
is  arguing,  he  must  imagine  that  he  does,  and  must  try  to 
trace  the  route  thereto.  But,  since  we  can  seldom  remember 
precisely  how  we  have  come  to  our  conclusions,  the  rules  of 
logic,  which  summarize  the  typical  ways  by  which  people 
arrive  at  safe  conclusions,  are  of  the  greatest  help. 

93.  The  Proposition.  —  If  argumentation  is  to  be  of  value 
it  must  be  based  upon  a  proposition,  a  statement  containing 
a  subject  and  a  predicate.  You  cannot  argue  "  Suffrage  for 
women  " ;  that  is  not  a  proposition.  The  idea  must  be  put 
into  the  form  of  statement  illustrated  by  any  one  of  the 
following :  "  Women  should  be  granted  the  suffrage " ; 
"  This  state  would  profit  by  adopting  women's  suffrage  " ; 
"  Women  should  be  granted  the  right  to  vote  at  school  elec- 
tions." Moreover,  the  proposition  should  be  stated  as  clearly 
and  definitely  as  possible.  It  should  narrow  the  field  of 
discussion  to  the  precise  limits  desired.  The  proposition, 
"  United  States  senators  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote," 
is  less  definite  than  "  United  States  senators  should  be 
elected  by  popular  vote  in  the  several  states."  If  the 
proposition  be  "  Judges  should  be  elected  by  the  people,"  it 
means  all  judges ;  whereas  you  may  really  wish  to  argue 
only  with  reference  to  federal  judges, —  "Federal  judges 
should  be  elected  by  the  people."  When  the  proposition 
cannot  readily  be  phrased  so  as  to  carry  a  self-evident 
meaning,  the  meaning  intended  must  be  defined  and  ex- 
plained in  the  introduction  to  the  argument.  This  will  be 
necessary  when  the  proposition  contains  a  term  not  accu- 
rately understood,  as  "  The  police  sweat-box  should  be  pro- 
hibited by  law,"  "Vocational  education  should  be  intro- 
duced into  the  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States."  It 
may  be  necessary  when  you  least  suspect  it,  as  in  the  propo- 


ANALYSIS.  167 

sition  "The  United  States  navy  should  be  increased." 
Does  the  United  States  navy  mean  merely  "fighting  ships'-? 
or  does  it  include  colliers,  repair  ships,  and  everything  else 
that  is  necessary  to  make  fighting  ships  effective  ?  The 
statement,  definition,  limitation,  and  explanation  of  the  propo- 
sition is  exceedingly  important  if  argumentation  is  to  be  of 
value.  Dictionary  definitions,  quotations  from  books  and 
magazine  articles  written  by  authorities,  "what  is  popu- 
larly understood  "  by  a  term,  "  common  sense,"  —  all  these 
may  be  used  in  explaining  the  meaning  of  a  proposition. 

94.  Analysis.  —  Having  determined  what  the  proposition 
means  and  implies,  —  nay  even  while  this  is  being  accom- 
plished, —  there  must  be  reading  and  reflection ;  there  must 
be  careful  analysis  including  the  search  for  proofs  that  are 
essential,  the  exclusion  of  matters  that  are  irrelevant,  the 
testing  and  arrangement  of  proofs  by  logic,  and  the  considera- 
tion of  objections  that  are  known  to  exist  against  the  adop- 
tion of  the  proposition,  and  that  must  be  met  in  any  fair 
discussion  of  the  subject. 

(A)  Reading  and  Reflection. — As  to  reading,  the  fol- 
lowing directions  will  be  helpful :  — 

1.  Do  not  confine  your   investigations   to  one  book  or 
magazine  article ;   read  as  widely  as  possible.     Especially 
do  not  fail  to  read  on  both  sides  of  the  question. 

2.  Learn  to  read  economically.     To  this  end,  learn  to  use 
the  card  catalogues  in  libraries,  such  publications  as  Poole's 
Index  to  Periodical  Literature,  and  make  it  a  practice  to 
consult  the  indexes  of  the  books  that  you  use  before  plung- 
ing into  them. 

3.  As  reading  and  thinking  goes  on,  it  should  result  in 
raising  numerous  questions.     As  fast  as  these  occur,  spe- 
cialize  your   reading ;  that   is,  cease   to   read  for   general 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  and  begin  to  read  for  answers  to 
the  several  specific  questions  that  have  come  up. 


168  ARGUMENTATION. 

4.  Make  notes  as  you  read.  You  will  find  it  most  eco- 
nomical to  use  for  this  purpose  separate  uniform  cards  (of 
library  card  catalogue  size),  putting  on  each  card  only 
a  single  note  with  exact  reference  to  author,  title,  volume, 
and  page.  Loose  cards  enable  you  later  easily  to  bring  to- 
gether the  notes  that  belong  together  by  merely  shifting  the 
cards. 

(B)  Search  for  Proofs.  —  As  to  the  search  for  proofs 
that  are  essential,  the  following  rules  are  applicable  :  — 

1.  The  determination  of  the  real  points  at  issue  is  pre- 
requisite  to  deciding  what  proofs  are  essential  and  what 
material  is  irrelevant.    Just  what  the  idea  is,  about  which 
an  essential  difference  arises,  must  be  known  in  order  that 
we  may  decide  what  is  needful  to  support  our  view.     It 
will  help  us  to  discover  the  real  points  at  issue  if  we  notice, 
while  the  reading  proceeds,  (a)  what  matters  are  assumed 
to  be  true  by  all  authorities,  (6)  what  matters  are  excluded 
from  consideration  by  the  wording  of  our  proposition,  or  by 
the  definitions  involved  in  its  terms.     Thus  if  the  proposi- 
tion be  "  The  Philippines  should  be  granted  independence 
of  the  United  States,"  and  if  the  reading  discloses  that  all 
authorities  assume  that  the  motives  of  the  McKinley  admin- 
istration  in   acquiring  the  Philippines  were  not  greed  of 
power,  or  commercial  advantages,  or  desire  for  exploitation, 
but   the  desire  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Philippines 
and   to  prepare  them   for  self-government,  all  arguments 
based  on  the  assumption  of  bad  motives  would  be  properly 
excluded  as  irrelevant,  and  the  points  at  issue  would   be 
represented  by  the  following  questions :   Has  the  colonial 
relationship  actually  promoted  the  welfare  of  the  Philip- 
pines ?     Has  the  colonial  relationship  sufficiently  prepared 
them  for  self-government  ?    What  would  be  the  effect  upon 
them  if  self-government  were  granted  ? 

2.  A  fact,  a  circumstance,  a  specific  instance,  a  principle, 
a  maxim,  a  theory,  an  appeal  to  experience  or  to  authority, 


ANALYSIS.  169 

will  be  valuable  as  an  argument  if  an  inference  can  be 
drawn  from  it  which  puts  it  in  the  relation  of  cause  and 
effect  to  one  of  the  real  points  at  issue.  Thus  the  fact  of 
several  disorders  of  late  years  in  the  Philippines  would  be 
pertinent  as  an  argument  against  the  proposition  last-named, 
only  if  the  disorders  could  be  inferred  to  have  been  unneces- 
sary, unprovoked,  and  significant  of  incapacity  for  self-control. 
3.  A  proof  will  be  essential  only  if  it  be  the  best  of  which 
the  case  is  susceptible.  It  will  not  do  to  be  satisfied  with 
quotations  of  opinion,  for  instance,  about  a  matter  on  which 
official  statistics  are  obtainable.  Thus  if  the  proposition  be, 
"  The  ticket-of-leave  system  should  be  adopted  in  our  peni- 
tentiaries," one  of  the  points  at  issue  that  will  be  sure  to 
arise  will  be  the  question,  "  Will  the  system  be  safe  for  the 
public  ?  "  and  that  in  turn  will  raise  the  question,  "  Are 
many  ticket-of-leave  men  recommitted  to  the  penitentiary 
for  further  crime  ?  "  Now,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  exact 
information  on  this  point,  and  anything  short  of  this  will 
not  avail  much.  Common  rumor,  individual  opinion,  is 
well-nigh  worthless  in  such  a  case. 

(<7)  Testing  Proofs;  meeting  Objections.  —  As  to  the 
testing  and  arrangement  of  proofs  and  the  disposing  of  ob- 
jections, the  following  suggestions  will  be  found  helpful :  — 

1.  Every  assertion  is  likely  to  be  attacked  either  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  based  on  false  "  facts,"  or  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  based  on  a  false  inference  from  facts  that  are 
perhaps  true.  This  prescribes  a  twofold  test  of  the  state- 
ments that  we  regard  as  true  arguments :  (a)  We  should 
first  question  the  "  facts  "  directly,  on  which  we  base  the  state- 
ment ;  are  they  true  as  we  supposed  them  to  be  ?  (6)  Find- 
ing them  true,  we  should  next  question  the  inference  that 
we  have  drawn  from  them  ;  we  should  ask,  is  this  the  only 
possible  inference  that  can  be  drawn  ?  is  it  a  reasonable  in- 
ference ?  an  inference  that  others  would  easily  draw,  too  ? 


170  ARGUMENTATION. 

And  if  we  know  that  other  inferences  are  possible  from  the 
same  set  of  facts,  we  must  examine  them  to  see  whether 
they  are  more  plausible,  or  probable,  than  the  inference  that 
we  have  drawn,  and  we  must  consider  what  to  say  in  order 
to  render  them  less  plausible  and  less  probable. 

2.  The  disposal  of  objections  that  are  sure  to  arise  is  thus 
interwoven  with  the  work  of  testing  our  own  arguments. 
The  same  twofold  test  that  we  apply  to  our  own  statements 
should  be  applied  to  each  objection  that  we  expect,  or  fear, 
from  those  who  think  differently  from  us.     In  addition  to 
this  test  we  should  note  that  often  there  are  objections  that 
we  should  candidly  admit  to  be  valid.     It  may  be,  however, 
that  they  are  equally  valid  against  any  propositions  that 
have  been  made  on  the  subject  and,  if  adopted,  would  result 
in   getting  nothing  done.     If  this  turns  out  to  be  so,  we 
should  see  whether  these  objections  may  not  be  less  likely 
to  be  operative  under  our  proposition  than  under  others ; 
and  if  that  seems  probable,  we  should  explain  them  away 
on  that  ground.     Again,  in  all  fairness,  an  objection  should 
never  be  understated ;  for  understatement  indicates  inabil- 
ity to  answer  it  completely.     A  weak  objection  may  be  neg- 
lected altogether. 

3.  Since  the  work  of  testing  our  own  arguments  is  inter- 
woven with  the  work  of  disposing  of  objections,  it  follows 
that  our  arguments  and  the  objections  thereto  must  be  con- 
sidered  together   when  we  are  arranging  our  material  in 
final  form.     The  place  to  bring  in  and  dispose  of  an  objec- 
tion is  the  place  at  which   we   are  to  discuss  the   point 
against  which  the  objection  is  likely  to  be  made.    They 
are  two  sides  of  the  same  thing  and  should  be  treated  to- 
gether.    In  every  argument  there  are  two  or  three  points 
that  are  vital,  —  the  points  at  issue  about  which  the  conflict 
centres.     These  two  or  three  points  at  issue  vary  in  im- 
portance and   the  arguments  that   support  them  likewise 
vary  in  importance.     It  is  a  general  rule  of  arrangement 


THE  BRIEF.  171 

to  place  these  points  at  issue  in  the  order  of  climax,  and  to 
place  the  arguments  that  support  them  respectively  like- 
wise in  the  order  of  climax,  proceeding  from  the  least 
to  the  most  important. 

All  of  this  work  of  analysis,  —  including  reading,  the 
search  for  essential  proofs,  the  testing  and  arrangement  of 
such  proofs  when  ascertained,  and  the  disposal  of  objections, 
—  leads  finally  to  the  making  of  a  brief  of  the  argument. 

95.  The  Brief.  —  After  the  work  of  analysis  is  done  and 
arguments  have  been  collected,  tested,  and  arranged,  with 
their  respective  objections,  it  is  highly  desirable,  before 
writing  begins,  that  they  should  be  displayed  to  the  eye  in 
a  manner  that  will  show  their  logical  relationship  to  each 
other  and  to  the  main  proposition.  This  is  necessary  for 
three  reasons :  (1)  In  order  that  all  that  is  to  be  said  may 
be  seen  as  a  whole,  (2)  In  order  that  any  gaps  in  the  argu- 
ment may  be  detected  and  filled,  (3)  In  order  that  a  logical 
guide  or  outline  may  be  followed  in  writing  or  speaking. 
There  are  two  respects  in  which  a  brief  differs  from  an 
ordinary  outline.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  made  up  of 
complete  sentences.  In  the  second  place,  each  sentence  of 
the  brief  proper  must  read  as  a  reason  for  the  sentence  of  next 
higher  rank.  Referring  to  the  specimen  brief  following :  — 

1.  Note  that  the  proposition  is  rewritten  in  full  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  brief  proper,  followed  by  the  word  Because. 

2.  Note  that  the  chief  reasons  for  the  proposition  are 
marked  (^4),  (5),  (C),  and  that  each  of  these  is  followed 
by  the  word  For,  and   supported   by   a   series  of   reasons 
marked  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  these  again  being  supported  by  reasons 
marked  (a),  (6),  (c),  etc. 

3.  Note  that  the  brief  does  not  show  the  reasons  for  the 
arguments  of  the  lowest  rank  ;  yet  it  is  upon  these  reasons, 
unexpressed  in  the  brief,  that  all   of   the   arguments   of 
higher  rank  must  stand  or  fall.     The  facts  or  authorities 


172  ARGUMENTATION. 

must  be  ready  when  the  argument  is  written,  in  order  to  sup- 
port the  arguments  of  lowest  rank.  1  (a)  and  1  (6),  under 
(A),  for  example,  will  require  that  the  rules  indicated  be 
named;  and  2  (6)  will  require  explanation.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  other  unsupported  reasons. 

4.  Note    that  objections  are  answered   wherever    they 
naturally  arise,  and  that  there  is  a  set  form  of  economical 
statement  for  them. 

5.  Note  that  the  words  hence  and  therefore  are  not  used. 
They  should  never  be  used  in  a  brief ;  since  they  reverse 
the  proper  order  of  main  and  subordinate  statement. 

6.  Note  that  each  statement  is  marked  with  one  and  only 
one  letter  or  number,  and  that  difference  in  rank  is  indi- 
cated not  only  by  the  kind  of  number  or  letter  but  by  dif- 
ference in  indention. 

Proposition :    Intercollegiate  football    promotes 
the  best  interests  of  the  colleges. 
I.    Introduction. 

(A  )  The  best  interests  of  the  colleges  include  not  merely  intel- 
lectual interests,  but  also  the  physical  interests  of  the  indi- 
vidual students,  and  their  social  interests,  —  esprit  de  corps, 
discipline,  morals. 

(B)  Hostility  to  intercollegiate  football  has  arisen  usually  from 
exceptional  or  curable  evils,  from  prejudice  without  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  facts. 

(C)  Intercollegiate  football  means  the  six  or  eight  games  that 
are  played  in  the  Fall  between   college  teams,  operating 
under  strict  rules  and  conference  agreements. 

II.   Brief  Proper. 
Intercollegiate    football    promotes  the    best    interests  of  the 

colleges.     Because 
(A  )   Football  (intercollegiate  and  other)  is  a  beneficial  form  of 

athletics.     For 
1.   It  promotes  the  health  of  the  players.     For 

(a)   The  players  must  observe  strict  rules  against 
excesses  of  all  kinds. 


THE  BRIEF.  173 

(ft)  They    must   be    regular    in    their    out-of-door 

training. 
(c)    They  are  usually  under  the  direction   of  an 

expert  physical  director. 

(rf)  Objection  answered.  It  is  not  true  that  the 
supervision  of  the  director  ceases  at  the  close 
of  the  season.  For 

(1)    Generally  he  is  on  duty  the  year  round. 
(e)    Objection  answered.     If  sufficient  vigilance  over 
the  players  is  not  now  exercised  after  the 
season  closes,  it  can  easily  be  supplied  with- 
out abolishing  football. 
2.   It  promotes  the  health  of  the  onlookers.     For 

(a)   It  affords  fresh  air  and  recreation  to  thousands 

who  would  otherwise  miss  this. 
(ft)    It  gives  them  a  healthy  social  interest. 
(c)    Objection  answered.     There  is  no  other  outdoor 
college  interest  that  is  so  universal  in  its 
appeal. 

Intercollegiate  games  are  essential  to  maintaining  foot- 
ball.    For 

1.  Without  them  high  standards  would  be  lost.     For 
(a)    There  would  be  less  attention  to  strict  health 

rules. 

(ft)  There  would  be  less  call  for  discipline  in  self- 
control,  courage,  obedience. 

(c)  There  would  be  less  attention  to  the  scholar- 
ship of  athletes. 

(rf)  Objection  answered.  Under  present  intercol- 
legiate rules  the  scholarship  of  athletes  is 
more  closely  watched  than  that  of  any  other 
class  of  students. 

2.  Without  them  there  would  be  a  less  general  partici- 

pation in  the  game  than  there  is  now.     For 
(a)    It  is  the  college  team  that  inspires  the  creation 

of  interclass    and    interfraternity   teams ; 

not  vice  versa. 
(6)  Scrub  teams,  substitute  teams,  and  the  like  would 

disappear  for  lack  of  incentive  to  continue. 


174  ARGUMENTATION. 

(C)    Intercollegiate  games  benefit  the  common  interests  of 
colleges.     For 

1.  They  promote  a  true  spirit  of  sportsmanship.     For 
(a)   Objection  answered.     The  treatment  of  visiting 

teams  is  markedly  better  than  ever  before. 

2.  They  substitute   a  wider  interest  for  narrow,  un- 

reasoning loyalty  to  one's  own  college.     For 
(a)    They  compel  the  recognition  of  excellence  in 
competitors. 

3.  They  promote  a  closer  acquaintance  with  other  in- 

stitutions in  all  respects. 
III.    Conclusion. 

(A  )   Summary  of  the  leading  arguments  is  made. 

(B)    A  plea  is  made  for  regulation  rather  than  prohibition. 

With  the  completion  of  the  brief  nothing  remains  but  the 
writing  of  the  argument  in  full,  with  such  amplification  of 
the  several  arguments,  —  especially  those  left  unsupported 
in  the  brief,  —  as  the  mass  of  facts  collected  and  the  various 
methods  of  exposition  (see  §§  88-90)  may  permit  or  sug- 
gest. What  is  given  in  the  pages  that  follow  is  to  be 
studied,  therefore,  not  as  prerequisite  to  any  attempt  at 
argumentation,  but  for  its  value  in  systematizing  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  and  in  making  our  practice  more  accurate 
and  precise. 

96.  Reasoning.  —  When  we  were  studying  the  logical  type 
of  paragraph  (see   §§  35-37),  we  discovered  the  essential 
difference  between  induction  and  deduction  as  modes  of 
reasoning.     We  noticed  that,  in  inductive  reasoning,  an  in- 
ference is  drawn  from  a  number  of  particulars,  whereas,  in 
deductive  reasoning,  a  principle  is  applied  in  one  or  more 
particulars.     Argumentation  inquires  into  the  validity  of 
each  of  these  modes  of  reasoning  and  into  the  practical  use 
that  may  be  made  of  each. 

97.  Inductive  Reasoning. — It  is  evident  that  inductive 
reasoning,  from  the  very  fact  that  it  dares  to  make  an  infer- 


INDUCTIVE  REASONING.  175 

ence  from  a  number  of  particular  facts  or  instances,  assumes, 
first,  that  these  particulars  constitute  a  class ;  that  is,  that 
they  are  alike  in  at  least  one  respect ;  and,  secondly,  that,  if 
all  of  the  members  of  the  class  have  not  been,  or  cannot  be, 
examined,  the  same  inference  is  as  true  of  the  unexamined 
as  of  the  examined  members  of  the  class.  The  astronomer 
feels  sure  that,  if  he  should  discover  a  new  planet  to-morrow 
morning,  it  would  be  found  to  be  revolving  from  west  to 
east,  like  the  other  planets.  The  practical  question  in  argu- 
mentation, then,  is,  how  many  particular  facts  or  instances 
must  be  examined  before  a  safe  inference  may  be  drawn  ? 
We  feel  sure  that  the  astronomer  is  safe;  but  how  about 
the  professor  who  infers  from  six  failures  to  recite,  in  a 
class  of  forty  members,  that  nobody  in  the  class  is  doing 
good  work  ?  or  that  scholarship  nowadays  is  inferior  as 
compared  with  twenty  years  ago  ?  How  about  the  reformer 
who  infers  from  the  discovery  of  lawlessness  in  the  manage- 
ment of  public  business  in  a  dozen  cities  that  all  cities  are 
misgoverned  ?  It  is  clear  from  these  illustrations  that 
safety  lies  in  examining  as  many  members  of  the  class  as  pos- 
sible ;  that  the  confidence  with  which  inferences  may  be  drawn 
will  depend  in  part  on  the  size  of  the  class,  but  more  on  the 
characteristic  on  which  the  classification  is  made.  Thus  an  in- 
ference in  regard  to  the  direction  in  which  a  new  planet  will 
revolve  on  its  axis  is  felt  to  be  safer  than  an  inference  about 
the  character  of  city  governments,  because  the  class  is  smaller 
and  less  complex.  Thus  too  an  inference  in  regard  to  the 
morals  of  sons  of  criminals  will  be  felt  to  be  safer  than  an 
inference  in  regard  to  the  sons  of  farmers,  of  preachers,  or 
of  teachers;  not  because  of  the  different  size  of  the  two 
classes,  but  because  of  a  certain  sense  of  solidarity  in  the 
class  that  we  cannot  escape  in  thinking  of  "  sons  of  crimi- 
nals "  from  the  view-point  of  morality.  This  sense  of  soli- 
darity, or  homogeneity,  in  a  class  means  that  the  principle 
or  characteristic  on  which  the  class  is  made  commends 


176  ARGUMENTATION. 

itself  to  our  judgment  as  being  essential  and  not  superficial 
or  whimsical.  Doubtless,  in  the  case  cited,  the  command- 
ing idea  that  gives  this  sense  of  homogeneity  is  that  of 
heredity. 

98.  Flaws    in    Inductive    Reasoning.  — If   now    it  be- 
comes necessary  to  invalidate  an  inductive  conclusion  made 
by  another,  our  course  is  clear.     We  may  examine  members 
of  the  class  which  have  evidently  been  left  unexamined  by 
the  one  who  made  the  inference,  and  possibly  we  may  find 
instances  sufficient  in  number  to  warrant  an  inference  of  an- 
other kind;  we  may,  for  example,  find  more  instances  of 
good  government  in  cities  than  our  opponent  has  cited  in 
support  of  his  inference  of  universal  bad  government.     In 
the  second  place,  if  this  procedure  is  unproductive  of  the 
result  we  are  seeking,  we  may  attack  the  principle,  or  charac- 
teristic, on  which  the  class  has  been  organized.     We  may 
declare  that  it  is  dangerous  to  make  inferences  about  the 
morals  of  any  class  based  on  the  principle  of  birth  or  occu- 
pation ;  we  may  cite  the  cases  of  British  penal  colonies  — 
Tasmania  and  New   Zealand  —  to  prove  that   descendants 
of  criminals,  in  a  good  environment,  lose  the  class  character- 
istic alleged. 

99.  Deductive  Reasoning.  —  Deduction  begins   with  an 
accepted  generalization  about  a  class  and  draws  a  conclu- 
sion about  a  member  that  has  not  been  examined.     Thus, 
from  previous   experience,  a  buyer  may  have  reached  the 
generalization  that  "  All  shirts  marked  xyz  are  well  made." 
He  finds   this  mark   on   a  shirt   and  concludes  that  this 
particular  shirt  is  well  made.     The   syllogism,  consisting 
of  major  premise,  minor  premise,  and  conclusion,  offers  a 
perfect  form  of  statement  for  such  reasoning. 

Major  premise.     All  shirts  marked  xyz  are  well  made. 
Minor  premise.     This  shirt  is  marked  xyz. 
Conclusion.  This  shirt  is  well  made. 


DEDUCTIVE  REASONING.  177 

All  deductive  reasoning  may  be  reduced  to  this  practical 
form  without  much  difficulty.  Thus,  if  the  previous  generali- 
zation is  not  about  "  All  shirts  marked  xyz"  but  is  "  Most 
shirts  marked  xyz"  or  "  Some  shirts  marked  xyz"  or  " Not 
all  shirts  marked  xyz"  the  typical  form  of  statement  may 
nevertheless  be  preserved,  and  our  precise  meaning  carried, 
by  adding  a  qualifying  clause  that  reduces  the  class  to  the 
smaller  size  and  character  intended.  In  fact  this  process 
helps  us  to  find  out  exactly  what  we  do  mean.  Thus,  for 
"  most,"  "  some  "  or  "  not  all "  we  may  find  that  what  we 
mean  is  — 

Major  premise.  All  shirts  marked  xyz,  that  cost  more  than 
one  dollar,  and  that  salesman  A  recommends,  are  well 
made. 

100.  Flaws  in  Deductive  Reasoning.  —  The  reduction 
of  the  major  premise  to  the  typical  form  will  not  only  give 
precision  to  our  own  reasoning,  it  will  disclose  errors  in  the 
reasoning  of  others.  One  of  the  chief  errors  arises  from 
failure  sufficiently  to  define  the  class  first  mentioned  in  the 
major  premise.  People  make  statements  with  reckless  cer- 
tainty about  large,  and  loose,  and  vague  classes,  like  social- 
ists, labor  unions,  Christians,  criminals,  society  people, 
business  men,  students,  children.  The  severe  requirement 
of  making  a  major  premise  beginning  with  the  word  "All," 
that  shall  express  the  idea  exactly  intended,  will  usually 
compel  qualification  after  qualification,  each  in  turn  more 
closely  defining  the  class  and  reducing  its  size.  This  process 
raises  the  question  of  fact.  Does  the  major  premise,  repre- 
senting what  another  has  said,  express  an  acceptable  gen- 
eralization ?  Is  it  true  ? 

Again,  granting  that  the  major  premise  is  true  and  accept- 
able, does  the  conclusion  necessarily  follow  ?  Macaulay  in 
his  Essay  on  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  has  pointed 
out  an  admirable  example  of  illogical  conclusions  based  on 


178  A  RG  UMEN  TA  TION. 

premises  that  are,  perhaps,  correct.     He  is  trying  to  prove 
that  Elizabeth  was  a  persecutor. 

To  punish  a  man  because  he  has  committed  a  crime,  or  because 
he  is  believed,  though  unjustly,  to  have  committed  a  crime,  is  not 
persecution.  To  punish  a  man,  because  we  infer  from  the  nature 
of  some  doctrine  which  he  holds,  or  from  the  conduct  of  other 
persons  who  hold  the  same  doctrines  with  him,  that  he  will  commit 
a  crime,  is  persecution,  and  is,  in  every  case,  foolish  and  wicked. 

When  Elizabeth  put  Ballard  and  Babington  to  death,  she  was 
not  persecuting.  Nor  should  we  have  accused  her  government  of 
persecution  for  passing  any  law,  however  severe,  against  overt 
acts  of  sedition.  But  to  argue  that  because  a  man  is  a  Catholic, 
he  must  think  it  right  to  murder  a  heretical  sovereign,  and  that 
because  he  thinks  it  right  he  will  attempt  to  do  it,  and  then,  to 
found  on  this  conclusion  a  law  for  punishing  him  as  if  he  had 
done  it,  is  plain  persecution. 

If,  indeed,  all  men  reasoned  in  the  same  manner  on  the  same 
data,  and  always  did  what  they  thought  it  their  duty  to  do,  this 
mode  of  dispensing  punishment  might  be  extremely  judicious. 
But  as  people  who  agree  about  premises  often  disagree  about  con- 
clusions, and  as  no  man  in  the  world  acts  up  to  his  own  standard 
of  right,  there  are  two  enormous  gaps  in  the  logic  by  which  alone 
penalties  for  opinions  can  be  defended.  Man,  in  short,  is  so  incon- 
sistent a  creature  that  it  is  impossible  to  reason  from  his  belief  to 
his  conduct,  or  from  one  part  of  his  belief  to  another. 

We  do  not  believe  that  every  Englishman  who  was  reconciled 
to  the  Catholic  Church  would,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  have 
thought  himself  justified  in  deposing  or  assassinating  Elizabeth. 
It  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  the  convert  must  have  acknowledged 
the  authority  of  the  Pope,  and  that  the  Pope  had  issued  a  bull 
against  the  Queen.  We  know  through  what  strange  loopholes  the 
human  mind  contrives  to  escape,  when  it  wishes  to  avoid  a  disr 
agreeable  inference  from  an  admitted  proposition.  We  know  how 
long  the  Jansenists  contrived  to  believe  the  Pope  infallible  in 
matters  of  doctrine,  and  at  the  same  time  to  believe  doctrines  which 
he  pronounced  to  be  heretical.  Let  it  pass,  however,  that  every 
Catholic  in  the  kingdom  thought  that  Elizabeth  might  be  lawfully 
murdered.  Still  the  old  maxim,  that  what  is  the  business  of  every- 


KINDS  OF  ARGUMENT.  170 

body  is  the  business  of  nobody,  is  particularly  likely  to  hold  good  in 
a  case  in  which  a  cruel  death  is  the  almost  inevitable  consequence 
of  making  any  attempt. 

Of  the  ten  thousand  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England,  there 
is  scarcely  one  who  would  not  say  that  a  man  who  should  leave 
his  country  and  friends  to  preach  the  Gospel  among  savages,  and 
who  should,  after  laboring  indefatigably  without  any  hope  of  re- 
ward, terminate  his  life  by  martyrdom,  would  deserve  the  warmest 
admiration.  Yet  we  doubt  whether  ten  of  the  ten  thousand  ever 
thought  of  going  on  such  an  expedition.  Why  should  we  suppose 
that  conscientious  motives,  feeble  as  they  are  constantly  found  to 
be  in  a  good  cause,  should  be  omnipotent  for  evil? 

101.  Kinds  of  Argument. — Arguments   applied  immedi- 
ately to   the  establishment   of   the  proposition  are  called 
direct;    those  applied  to  the  overthrow  of  objections   are 
called  indirect,  or,  better,  refutation.     In  either  case  they 
may  be  classified  and  the  different  kinds  may  be  pointed 
out  and  named. 

102.  A  priori  Arguments.  —  In   a  priori    proofs   (some- 
times called  proofs  from  antecedent  probability)  the  reason- 
ing (purely  deductive)  is  from  cause  to  effect,  or  from  a  general 
law  to  the  results  of  that  law. 

The  prevalence  of  intemperance  in  a  community  is  an 
a  priori  proof  of  the  existence  of  wretchedness  in  that  com- 
munity, because  intemperance  is  a  cause  of  wretchedness. 

Bountiful  crops  throughout  the  country  furnish  an  a 
priori  proof  that  business  will  be  good,  since  we  know  that 
these  are  a  potent  cause  of  general  prosperity.  Arguments 
in  regard  to  future  events  are  always  a  priori. 

The  syllogism  for  a  priori  reasoning  takes  the  usual 
form :  — 

All  periods  of  tariff-tinkering  are  followed  by  business 
disturbances. 

This  period  is  a  period  of  tariff-tinkering. 

This  period  will  be  followed  by  business  disturbances. 


180  ARGUMENTATION. 

Stated  in  the  severe  syllogistic  form  the  a  priori  proof 
reveals  its  weakness.  Its  validity  depends  upon  the  cer- 
tainty that  the  cause  assigned  is  adequate  and  operative. 
If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  cause  assigned  is  inadequate,  or 
though  adequate,  is  hindered  by  other  forces  from  producing 
its  natural  result,  the  argument  is  impaired  to  that  extent. 
In  the  case  just  syllogized  the  major  premise  may  be  ques- 
tioned as  a  statement  of  fact,  and  history  may  be  appealed 
to  in  order  to  decide  the  truth  of  the  matter.  It  may  be 
shown  in  regard  to  past  instances  that  the  tariff-tinkering 
was  not  the  real  and  efficient  cause  of  the  business  disturb- 
ances ;  that  the  real  cause  was,  in  some  cases,  over-produc- 
tion, and  in  other  cases  over-speculation  in  land ;  in  other 
words,  that  here  a  mere  antecedent  in  time  has  been  mis- 
taken for  a  cause.  Or  admitting  the  truth  of  the  major 
premise  it  may  be  shown  that  the  usual  cause  will  be  hin- 
dered in  its  operation  this  time,  by  vast  new  governmental 
enterprises  that  will  fully  occupy  the  energies  of  the  people ; 
or  that  the  speed  with  which  capital  under  modern  arrange- 
ments can  be  transferred  from  unproductive  to  productive 
channels  will  either  obviate  or  minimize  the  effect. 

103.  A  posteriori  Arguments.  — In  a  posteriori  reasoning 
(also  purely  deductive)  we  have  the  reverse  of  a  priori 
reasoning.  It  proceeds  from  an  effect  to  a  precedent  condition 
so  connected  with  the  effect  that  the  existence  of  the  effect  im- 
plies the  existence  of  the  condition.  It  is  reasoning  from  effect 
to  cause. 

From  the  appearance  of  a  certain  crop  the  expert  reasons 
back  to  the  cause  —  there  has  been  no  rotation  of  crops  in 
this  field  for  many  years. 

From  the  peculiar  actions  of  a  man  near  a  dark  alley  at 
midnight  the  policeman  concludes  that  the  man  has  done 
something  wrong. 

The  physician  noticing  certain  symptoms   in   a  patient 


KINDS   OF  ARGUMENT.  181 

inquires    as   to   the    number   of    cigars   he   smokes    every 
day. 

A  posteriori  reasoning  takes  the  usual  syllogistic  form,  the 
major  premise  being  essentially,  "all  cases  showing  these 
particular  facts  point  back  to  certain  things  as  causes."  The 
a  posteriori  argument  may  be  invalidated  in  the  same  way  as 
the  a  priori.  One  may  scrutinize  the  case  and  perhaps  find 
the  "facts"  different  from  those  alleged;  one  may  find  new 
"facts"  in  the  case  that  are  significant;  or  one  may  deny  a 
causal  relation  between  the  "  facts "  and  the  causes  alleged. 

Both  a  priori  and  a  posteriori  arguments  are  nothing  more 
than  a  reading  of  signs  or  indications,  the  one  argument 
reading  forward,  the  other  reading  backward.  The  inter- 
pretation of  circumstantial  evidence  may  be  a  pnori  or 
a  posteriori  reasoning.  When  Sherlock  Holmes  decides  from 
certain  signs  that  the  crime  has  been  committed  by  a  certain 
man  whom  he  can  name,  he  is  reasoning  a  posteriori;  but 
when  he  goes  on  to  predict  that  this  man  will  be  found  in 
Salt  Lake  City  within  six  weeks  he  is  reasoning  a  priori. 
The  reading,  or  interpretation,  of  signs,  calls  for  the  exercise 
of  great  care.  The  most  suspicious  circumstances  are  often 
wholly  inconclusive.  If,  for  instance,  blood  stains  upon  the 
clothing  of  a  man  accused  of  murder  are  explained  in  some 
other  way  than  by  the  supposition  of  guilt,  the  probability 
of  the  explanation  offered  becomes  of  prime  importance. 
The  same  signs  are  frequently  employed  for  opposite  ends. 
Usually  a  person  comes  to  the  reading  of  signs  with  a  cer- 
tain "  theory  of  the  case "  in  mind,  which  he  hopes  the 
signs  can  be  used  to  verify.  One  writer  regards  strikes 
as  signs  that  the  influence  of  trades  unions  is  pernicious; 
another  regards  the  same  phenomena  as  signs  that  the 
trades  unions  have  given  the  working  classes  power  to 
assert  and,  in  some  cases,  to  maintain  their  rights.  The 
more  numerous  the  signs  pointing  to  one  conclusion,  the 
greater  their  value  as  arguments. 


182  ARG  I'M  i:\TATIOX. 

104.  Arguments   from  Authority.  —  Authority,  or   what 
books  and  competent  persons  have  said,  irrespective  of  par- 
ticular cases,  as  to  the  truth  or  falsity  of  a  proposition,  and 
testimony,  or  the  evidence  of  witnesses,  may  be  a  priori  or 
a  posteriori,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  statements  made 
by  the  authority  or  by  the  witness  testifying.     When  au- 
thorities are  quoted  to  support  a  statement,  reference  should 
be  made  to  the  edition,  volume,  and  page;  and  in  general 
only  those  authorities  should  be  referred  to  who  are  ac- 
knowledged to  be  competent  to  speak  on  the  subject,  who 
are  known  to  be  disinterested,  and  whose  works,  if  quoted, 
are  accessible.     Concurrence  of  authorities  or  of  witnesses 
as  to  the  truth  of  any  matter  gives  added  force,  but  authority, 
by  itself,  is  the  weakest  form  of  argument,  and  expert  testimony 
has  become  well-nigh   useless,   on  account  of   the  continual 
conflict  between  experts  equally  eminent.     One  authority 
refutes  another. 

105.  Arguments  from  Example.  —  Examples  of  the  truth 
of  a  proposition  are  a  form  of-  deduction  which  gains   its 
power  on  the  assumption  that  the  essential  conditions  under 
which  men  act  and  things  take  place  remain  the  same  in 
different    times   and   different    countries.     Each    example 
should  exemplify  the  point  to  be  proved  by  it  in  an  unmis- 
takable way,  and  all  examples  cited  should  exemplify  this 
point  in  the  same  way.     How  many  examples  are  needed  to 
substantiate  a  given  statement  must   be  decided   in  each 
case.     It  is  evidently  not  sufficient  proof  of  the  proposition 
that  blindness  increases  poetic  power  to  cite  the  case  of 
Milton.     The  refutation  of  the  argument  from  example  is  more 
frequently  successful  than  that  of  any  other  kind  of  argument. 
It  is  never  hard  to  cast  doubt  upon  the  applicability  of  the 
example  cited  to  the  precise  point  at  issue,  to  show  that 
the  example  really  proves  something  else.     Froude,  himself 
a  great  historian,  doubted  if  historical  examples  from  one 


METHODS   OF  REFUTATION. t  183 

age  were  ever  of  probative  force  in  another  age,  on  account  of 
changes  in  essential  conditions.  One  form  of  the  argument 
from  example  is  the  "  much  more "  argument  (a  fortiori) 
which  asserts  that  if  a  thing  is  true  in  an  admitted  case, 
much  more  should  it  (or  will  it)  be  true  in  a  case  where  the 
essential  condition  is  clearer.  "If  the  teacher  should  be 
punctual  in  attendance,  much  more  should  the  student  who 
has  more  to  lose  by  absence."  Here  the  point  that  classi- 
fies teacher  and  student  together  is  "  profit  by  attendance  " 
or  "  loss  by  absence."  The  principle  of  classification  is  often 
still  harder  to  find  in  the  analogy  which  is  a  vague  form  of 
the  argument  from  example,  having  conspicuous  value  as 
illustrating  one's  meaning,  but  little  value  as  proof.  The 
prohibition  orator  who  cried,  "  We  do  not  train  out  a  cancer; 
we  cut  it  out,"  illustrated  his  meaning  perfectly,  but  noth- 
ing was  proved  by  the  statement.  Finally,  appeals  to  ex- 
perience,—  to  common  knowledge,  to  common  sense,  to 
what  we  know  of  "  human  nature,"  are  disguised  forms  of 
the  argument  from  example,  in  which  specification  of  par- 
ticular instances  is  treated  as  unnecessary.  The  refutation 
consists  in  the  demand  for  particular  instances. 

106.  Methods  of  Refutation.  —  In  addition  to  the  methods 
of  refutation  noted  above  the  following  may  be  named  as 
occasionally  useful :  — 

1.  The  Dilemma  refutes  a  proposition  by  reducing  it  to  two 
possible  cases  and  disproving  each.  Thus  the  proposition  that 
"Convict  labor  deprives  free  laborers  of  work"  is  answered: 

These  convicts,  before  they  were  imprisoned,  were  either  workers 
or  idlers.  If  idlers,  they  had  to  be  supported  at  the  expense  of  free 
labor,  and  to  make  them  work  while  in  prison  relieves  free  labor 
of  the  burden  of  their  continued  support.  If  they  were  workers 
before  their  imprisonment,  they  competed  with  other  free  laborers, 
and  to  make  them  work  while  in  prison  does  not,  therefore,  alter 
former  conditions  in  this  respect;  whereas  enforcing  idleness  upon 


184  ARGUMENTATION. 

them  would  throw  the  additional  burden  of  their  support  upon 
free  labor. 

In  rebuttal,  however,  it  would  be  urged  that  the  dilemma  misses 
the  real  point  at  issue.  What  is  complained  of  is,  not  that  con- 
victs are  compelled  to  work,  but  that  their  work  is  concentrated 
in  a  very  few  trades,  —  coopering,  cigar-making,  shoe-making,  bolt- 
making,  —  and  thus  their  output  is  so  great  as  to  depress  wages  in 
these  trades  and  deprive  free  laborers  of  work.  Thus  the  dilemma 
fails,  for  a  third  alternative  is  possible  :  disperse  the  convict  labor 
among  so  many  trades  that  in  no  one  of  them  shall  the  product  be 
sufficient  to  exercise  a  harmful  influence. 

2.  Presumption  vs.  Presumption.  —  One  presumption 
may  be  overthrown  by  another.  The  presumption  is  in 
favor  of  established  institutions  and  against  a  change,  but  it 
is  also  in  favor  of  what  is  right,  charitable,  and  likely  to  pro- 
mote welfare.  As  these  presumptions  are  often  in  conflict, 
one  may  be  used  to  overthrow  the  other.  The  same  thing 
will  be  called  by  speakers,  under  the  influence  of  opposing 
presumptions,  —  "  the  existing  order,"  and  "  antiquated 
prejudice  " ;  "  religion  "  and  "  superstition  " ;  "  the  clergy  " 
and  "the  priests  "  ;  "zeal "  and  " fanaticism  " ;  "  influence" 
and  "bribery";  "relationship"  and  "nepotism";  "re- 
wards "  and  "  graft " ;  "  good  living  "  and  "  gluttony  " ; 
"  necessary  alteration  "  and  "  dangerous  innovation  "  ; 
"  liberty  "  and  "  anarchy  "  ;  "  taxation  "  and  "  robbery  "  ; 
"  bravery  "  and  "  foolhardiness  " ;  "  embezzlement "  and 
"  stealing  "  ;  "  purity  "  and  "  prudishness."  Each  of  these 
terms  is  fundamentally  a  begging  of  the  question  at  issue, 
for  it  subtly  inserts  into  the  content  of  the  word  the  very 
thing  that  requires  proof.  However,  it  is  well  understood 
by  every  one  that  the  words  we  employ  express  instinctively 
and  unintentionally  our  prejudices  and  habitual  presump- 
tions. Allowance  is  always  made  for  such  usages,  and 
natural  tendency  may  be  trusted  to  offset  excess  of  state- 
ment by  excess  of  statement,  epithet  by  epithet. 


METHODS   OF  REFUTATION.  185 

3.  Reductio  ad  dbsurdum  is  a  common  method  of 
making  our  opponent's  position  seem  absurd.  It  applies  his 
argument  to  extreme  cases,  beyond  his  intention,  holds  him 
responsible  for  the  logic,  and  makes  him  prove  something  ridicu- 
lous. Thus  Macaulay,  in  his  Copyright  Speech  of  1841, 
arguing  that  any  copyright  at  all  means  a  monopoly,  reduces 
to  absurdity  the  objection  that  monopoly  makes  articles 
good  and  cheap,  by  asking  — 

"  Why  should  we  not  restore  the  East  India  trade  to  the  East 
India  Company?  Why  should  we  not  revive  all  those  old  mo- 
nopolies which,  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  galled  our  fathers  so  severely 
that,  maddened  by  intolerable  wrong,  they  opposed  to  their  sov- 
ereign a  resistance  before  which  her  haughty  spirit  quailed  for  the 
first  and  for  the  last  time  ?  Was  it  the  cheapness  and  excellence 
of  commodities  that  then  so  violently  stirred  the  indignation  of 
the  English  people?  I  believe,  Sir,  that  I  may  safely  take  it  for 
granted  that  the  effect  of  monopoly  generally  is  to  make  articles 
scarce,  to  make  them  dear,  and  to  make  them  bad." 


PART  III. 

• 

ASSIGNMENTS. 

A.  THE   PARAGRAPH. 

1.  —  (Sections  1-3)  —  Make  an  analysis   of  the  structure 
of  one  of  the  whole  compositions  in  Appendix  A. 

2.  —  (Section  2)  —  Analyze  the  following  paragraphs   ac- 
cording to  their  thought-divisions  :  — 

(a)  Sight  is  without  doubt  the  most  valuable  of  the  senses 
except  the  general  sense  of  touch.  The  man  who  loses  the  sense 
of  smell  or  the  sense  of  taste  may  regret  the  loss  keenly,  but  it  de- 
prives him  of  only  one  form  of  pleasure  and  contracts  to  only  a 
limited  extent  his  usefulness  or  ability.  Even  the  deaf  man  con- 
tinues to  get  along  very  well  by  other  means  of  communication 
with  his  fellow-men,  and  though  he  has  lost  one  of  the  means  of 
happiness,  can  be  contented  and  almost  as  efficient  as  ever.  But 
the  blind  man  is  not  merely  cut  off  from  enjoyment  of  the  keenest 
character,  but  he  is  almost  as  helpless  as  if  he  had  lost  all  the  other 
special  senses  together.  Yet  partial  or  complete  blindness  is  far 
from  rare.  This  results  more  frequently  from  the  complexity  of 
the  organ  of  sight  and  the  delicacy  of  its  mechanism  than  from 
any  inherent  defects.  A  misunderstood  saying  of  the  great  Ger- 
man physicist,  Helmholtz,  to  the  effect  that  he  would  return  to  the 
maker  an  optical  instrument  so  filled  with  defects  as  is  the  human 
eye,  is  often  quoted.  No  one  better  appreciated  than  did  Helm- 
holtz the  difficult  function  which  the  eye  is  called  upon  to  perform. 
He  would  not  think  of  returning  an  instrument,  however  defective 
it  might  be,  which  would  automatically  accomplish  one-tenth  the 
amount  of  work  which  the  eye  does.  He  designed  merely  to  criti- 
cise the  mechanical  means  adopted  to  accomplish  certain  ends,  and 

IM 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  187 

his  criticism  was  a  just  one.  Every  mechanic  is  similarly  justified 
in  criticising  the  mechanism  of  the  muscles  of  the  arm,  for  ex- 
ample, because  levers  of  the  third  order  are  generally  employed, 
instead  of  those  of  the  first.  Yet  no  mechanic  has  succeeded  in 
producing  an  artificial  arm  which  will  accomplish  results  one-tenth 
as  useful  as  a  natural  one. 

(b)  The  principal  cause,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  said  the  only 
cause,  of  rain  is  a  change  from  heat  to  cold,  or  vice  versa.  Into  a 
mass  of  heated  air  a  mass  or  current  of  cold  air  falls  or  is  injected, 
or  similar  phenomena  occur  with  a  mass  of  warm  air,  and  there  is 
a  condensation  of  the  moisture  which  always  exists  in  the  atmos- 
phere with  a  fall  of  rain.  Sometimes  the  air  of  higher  or  lower 
temperature  is  brought  by  a  wind  of  more  or  less  violence,  and  the 
rainfall  is  more  or  less  copious.  When  an  upper  stratum  of  cold 
air  falls  upon  a  lower  stratum  the  change  usually  proceeds  slower 
and  the  rain  is  more  moderate  at  first,  with  prospect  of  longer  con- 
tinuance. In  these  atmospheric  modifications  electricity  plays  a 
part,  but  whether  as  cause  or  effect  is  not  as  yet  and  perhaps  never 
will  be  fully  determined.  Mountain  ranges  or  isolated  mountain 
peaks  affect  the  local  rainfall,  or  modify  it  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  entire  character  of  certain  countries  is  changed  by  these  agen- 
cies. When  there  is  a  range  of  lofty  mountains,  like  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  sea  the  passage  of  the  moist 
currents  of  air  toward  the  interior  of  the  continent  is  interrupted. 
Nearly  all  the  rain  falls  on  the  seaward  side,  and  the  interior  of  the 
continent  becomes  a  comparative  desert,  as  in  North  America,  de- 
pending for  the  scanty  amount  of  moisture  furnished  it  on  other 
natural  causes.  In  great  deserts  like  the  Sahara  rain  only  falls  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  mountains,  where  the  storms  are  often  violent, 
but  brief.  The  climatology  of  the  tropics  has  been  imperfectly 
studied,  but  the  rains,  which  are  much  more  abundant,  depend  in 
the  equatorial  belt,  as  in  the  temperate  zones,  on  changes  of 
temperature.  Droughts  occur  in  Hindostan  and  in  Central  Africa, 
but  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  great  desert  regions  like  those  of 
Northern  Africa  and  Central  Asia  are  only  found  at  a  considerable 
distance  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 

(C)  It  is  common  to  talk  of  ignorance  as  the  chief  peril  of 
democracies.  That  it  is  a  peril,  no  one  denies,  and  we  are  all,  I 


188          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

hope,  agreed  that  it  has  become  more  than  ever  the  duty  of  the 
state  to  insist,  not  only  on  a  more  penetrating  and  stimulative  in- 
struction, but  upon  the  inclusion  of  the  elements  of  constitutional 
knowledge  among  the  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  higher  standards 
of  our  schools.  Democracy  has,  however,  another  foe  not  less  per- 
nicious. This  is  indolence.  Indifference  to  public  affairs  shows 
itself  not  merely  in  a  neglect  to  study  them  and  fit  one's  self  to 
give  a  judicious  vote,  but  in  the  apathy  which  does  not  care  to  give 
a  vote  when  the  time  arrives.  It  is  a  serious  evil  already  in  some 
countries,  serious  in  London,  very  serious  in  Italy,  serious  enough 
in  the  United  States,  not  indeed  at  Presidential,  but  at  city  and 
other  local  elections,  for  some  reformer  to  have  proposed  to  punish 
with  a  fine  the  citizen  who  neglects  to  vote,  as  in  some  old  Greek 
city  the  law  proclaimed  penalties  against  the  citizen  who  in  a  sedi- 
tion stood  aloof,  taking  neither  one  side  nor  the  other.  For,  un- 
happily, it  is  the  respectable,  well-meaning,  easy-going  citizen,  as 
well  as  the  merely  ignorant  citizen,  who  is  apt  to  be  listless. 
Those  who  have  their  private  ends  to  serve,  their  axes  to  grind  and 
logs  to  roll  are  not  indolent  Private  interest  spurs  them  on ;  and 
if  the  so-called  "  good  citizen,"  who  has  no  desire  or  aim  except 
that  good  government  which  benefits  him  no  more  than  every  one 
else,  does  not  bestir  himself,  the  public  funds  may  become  the 
plunder,  and  the  public  interests  the  sport  of  unscrupulous  adven- 
turers. 

(d)  Labor  unions  have  heretofore  exerted  a  large  influence  in 
determining  the  amount  of  wages  that  have  been  paid  to  the  lowest 
and  most  numerous  class  of  workers  in  the  various  departments  of 
wealth  production.  But  they  are  now  developing  certain  inherent 
weaknesses  which  are  destined  in  the  near  future  to  entirely  neu- 
tralize their  influence.  They  have  sought  to  better  the  material 
condition  of  the  laborers  through  combinations  looking  mainly  to 
an  increase  in  wages.  So  long  as  skill  in  the  several  trades  was 
difficult  of  acquirement,  requiring  long  periods  of  apprenticeship 
to  master  them,  this  was  comparatively  easy.  By  limiting  the 
hours  of  work,  the  employment  of  apprentices,  and  excluding 
nonunion  men,  they  could  so  decrease  the  supply  of  labor  as  to 
materially  affect  the  price.  But  increase  in  machinery,  increase  in 
density  of  population,  and  through  them  increase  in  the  subdivision 
of  labor  are  fatal  to  this  continued  control  of  the  labor  supply. 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PAEAGRAPH.  189 

When  labor  is  so  subdivided  that  one  man  or  one  woman  only 
performs  some  infinitesimal  part  in  the  production  of  a  thing,  a 
part  which  can  be  learned  in  a  day,  or  a  week  at  most,  labor  can 
readily  transfer  itself  from  one  industry  to  another  without  serving 
a  long  apprenticeship.  This  increases  the  difficulties  of  the  labor 
union,  and  decreases  its  chances  of  success.  It  is,  too,  a  progres- 
sive difficulty;  one  that  increases  just  as  this  subdivision  of  labor 
goes  on.  The  easier  it  is  for  labor  to  flow  from  one  industry  to 
another,  the  more  extensive  must  be  the  control  of  the  union  to 
have  any  effect  at  all.  But  this  is  not  the  only  difficulty.  Under 
our  present  industrial  system,  where  the  materials  for  wealth  pro- 
duction, the  improved  processes,  improved  machinery,  the  accumu- 
lations of  capital,  the  opportunities  for  employment  —  more  than 
all  else  the  land  —  are  subjected  to  private  ownership,  the  sub- 
division of  labor  becomes  an  element  of  weakness  on  the  part  of 
the  laborer.  The  more  minute  that  subdivision,  the  more  helpless 
and  dependent  the  laborer.  Therefore  the  union  has  a  double 
difficulty  in  exercising  a  control.  One  set  of  workmen  can  more 
easily  take  the  places  of  the  other  on  strike,  and  being  more  de- 
pendent on  securing  employment  it  must. 

(e)  It  is  quite  a  common  mistake  on  the  part  of  young  people 
to  suppose  that  the  pleasures  of  literature  correspond  with  the 
pleasures  of  reading.  They  are  so  busy  absorbing  stories  and 
poetic  thoughts  that  they  have  no  time  for  reflection,  recollection, 
or  anything  more  than  eulogistic  expressions  of  opinion.  But  the 
pleasures  of  literature  are  among  the  most  enduring  and  varied  that 
man  is  permitted  to  have.  "My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is  "is 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  when  he  was  in 
jail,  with  no  hope  of  release.  His  mind  was  a  kingdom  because 
it  was  stored  with  learning  of  all  kinds,  and  because,  also,  he  had 
a  clear  conscience.  He  could  live  within  himself.  Even  the  casual 
reader  of  to-day  who,  in  the  multitude  of  literature  offered  to  him 
can  have  no  set  line  of  study,  gains  something  more  than  immediate 
enjoyment.  He  becomes  insensibly  charged  with  facts  and  fancies 
which,  living  in  his  memory,  will  be  revived  in  after  years  and 
renew  the  pleasures  they  now  afford.  But  the  pleasures  of  litera- 
ture are  not  confined  to  those  derived  directly  from  reading  or 
from  recollection.  Literature  stimulates  original  thought  and  leads 
to  another  field  of  pleasure  —  that  of  writing  for  the  instruction  or 


190  ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

enjoyment  of  others.  It  leads  also  to  association  with  men  of  kin- 
dred tastes  and  enjoyments,  and  may  thus  greatly  enlarge  the 
opportunities  for  pleasure.  Every  society  organized  for  the  study 
of  literature  or  practice  in  the  art  seems  to  establish  wholesome 
friendships  that  not  only  last  a  lifetime,  but  may  be  extended  to 
other  generations. 

(f)  Poetry  has  done  much  to  give  shape  to  the  religion  of  the 
world.  It  has  been  said  that  Homer  gave  to  Greece  her  gods. 
This  is  doubtless  true  in  the  sense  that  the  Homeric  poems  did 
much  to  give  permanent  shape  to  the  Greek  mythology,  and  they 
did  this  not  in  spite  of,  but  because  of,  the  fact  that  they  were,  and 
were  felt  to  be,  merely  poems.  In  later  times,  Wordsworth  did 
more  than  almost  any  one  besides  to  give  reality  and  influence  to 
the  religion  of  the  divine  immanence.  At  the  same  time,  there 
could  hardly  be  found  examples  of  truer  poetry  than  the  lines  in 
which  Wordsworth  sings  of  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  the  Divine 
Presence  in  this  outer  world.  It  is  because  the  poetry  is  so  genuine, 
BO  perfect  simply  as  poetry,  that  it  has  had  such  influence.  That 
poetry  should  have  been  able  to  influence  religion  in  this  way  is 
what  might  have  been  naturally  expected.  Religion  is  of  the  na- 
ture of  poetry.  It  implies  a  certain  divine  insight.  In  the  religion 
of  the  earlier  world  men  gave  life  to  the  things  about  them.  The 
world  in  which  they  dwelt  was  a  living  world.  The  sun  soared 
and  guided  itself  through  the  heavens;  men  could  speak  to  the 
trees  and  the  mountains,  and  be  heard.  In  later  times,  by  a  simi- 
lar method,  religion  reached  loftier  heights.  These  heights  were 
gained  largely  by  faith,  and  faith  rose  upon  the  wings  of  the  im- 
agination. It  was  not  by  the  arguments  of  philosophers  and  theo- 
logians that  these  planes  were  attained.  These  arguments  followed 
after  to  give  permanence  to  what  faith  had  won.  Faith,  however, 
is  always  in  advance.  Thus  poetry  has  lent  itself  from  the  earliest 
times  to  be  the  expression  of  religion.  Indeed,  it  was  probably  at 
first  simply  the  expression  of  religion.  What  is  true  of  religion  is 
.  true  also  of  morality.  Morality  rests  not  upon  argument,  but  upon 
insight.  Theories  form  about  these  insights.  The  moral  sense 
upholds  these  theories,  and  is  not  upheld  by  them.  Morality  thus 
belongs  not  to  the  realm  of  logic,  but  to  that  of  the  imagination. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  whole  class  of  relations  to  which  poetry 
has  ministered.  Love,  patriotism,  liberty,  all  these  have  been  sung 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  191 

by  poetry,  because  they  all  bring  us  into  relations  with  unseen 
ideals.  They  all  belong  to  the  realm  of  faith  and  imagination, 
(g)  All  the  chief  stories  that  we  know  so  well  are  to  be  found 
in  all  times,  and  in  almost  all  countries.  Cinderella,  for  one,  is 
told  in  the  language  of  every  country  in  Europe,  arid  the  same 
legend  is  found  in  the  fanciful  tales  related  by  the  Greek  poets ; 
and  still  further  back,  it  appears  in  very  ancient  Hindoo  legends. 
So,  again,  does  Beauty  and  the  Beast;  so  does  our  own  familiar 
tale  of  Jack  the  Giant-Killer;  so  also  do  a  great  number  of  other 
fairy  stories,  each  being  told  in  different  countries  and  in  different 
periods,  with  so  much  likeness  as  to  show  that  all  the  versions  came 
from  the  same  source,  and  yet  with  so  much  difference  as  to  show 
that  none  of  the  versions  are  directly  copied  "from  each  other.  In- 
deed, when  we  compare  the  myths  and  legends  of  one  country  with 
another,  and  of  one  period  with  another,  we  find  out  how  they  have 
come  to  be  so  much  alike,  and  yet  in  some  things  so  different.  We 
see  that  there  must  have  been  one  origin  for  all  these  stories,  that 
they  must  have  been  invented  by  one  people,  that  this  people 
must  have  been  afterward  divided,  and  that  each  part  or  division 
of  it  must  have  brought  into  its  new  home  the  legends  once  com- 
mon to  them  all,  and  must  have  shaped  and  altered  these  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  places  in  which  they  came  to  live:  those  of 
the  North  being  sterner  and  more  terrible,  those  of  the  South  softer 
and  fuller  of  light  and  color,  and  adorned  with  touches  of  more 
delicate  fancy. 

3.  —  (Section  4)  —  Find  among  the  uncredited  paragraphs 
in  Appendix  A  five  that  are  evidently  part  of  a  larger  dis- 
course. Find  five  that  are  clearly  independent  compositions. 

4. —  (Sections  2-3)  —  The  dots  in  the  following  para- 
graphs show  where  sentences  have  been  omitted.  Deter- 
mine, by  analysis,  the  missing  idea,  and  write  the  sentence. 

(a)  A  coal  miner  well  knows  that  the  deeper  the  pit  the  warmer 
he  finds  it.  Even  in  the  severest  winter,  at  the  bottom  of  a  coal 
pit,  frost  would  be  unknown.  Our  deepest  mines,  however,  amount 
only  to  a  very  insignificant  opening  in  the  earth,  when  its  due 
proportions  are  considered.  We  have  never  pierced  the  interior 
of  our  globe  to  an  extent  comparable  with  that  of  the  depth  of  the 


192          ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

rind  of  an  orange,  on  a  globe  the  same  size  as  an  orange.  Conse- 
quently, any  observations  that  can  be  made  even  in  the  deepest 
mines  are  available  only  to  a  very  limited  extent  for  affording  us  a 
notion  of  what  the  interior  of  the  earth  may  be  like.  .  .  .  The  fact 
that  the  temperature  gradually  increases  the  deeper  we  go  shows  us 
that  this  increase  must  still  continue  even  at  depths  far  beyond  those 
to  which  we  can  attain.  Suppose,  for  instance,  a  red-hot  cannon 
ball  is  left  to  cool,  the  heat  is  radiated  away  from  the  outside,  and 
the  internal  heat,  travelling  outward  from  the  interior,  has  to  ar- 
rive at  the  outside  before  it,  too,  can  be  dispersed  by  radiation. 
If  the  cannon  ball  were  a  very  large  one  it  would  be  found  that 
the  exterior  grew  cold  while  there  was  still  a  great  deal  of  warmth 
at  the  centre  —  in  fact,  if  the  dimensions  of  the  ball  were  suffi- 
ciently large  it  might  still  be  red-hot  in  the  middle,  while  at  the 
outside  it  was  cold  enough  to  place  your  hand  upon.  Just  so  is  it 
with  the  earth  ;  it  is  a  vast  cooling  body ;  the  heat  from  the  inte- 
rior is  gradually  leaking  out  to  the  surface,  from  whence  it  will  be 
dispersed  by  radiation.  The  deeper  that  we  penetrated  into  its 
interior  the  hotter  it  would  be  found,  and  from  the  observed  law 
of  increase  in  the  depths  which  are  accessible  to  us,  it  becomes 
possible  to  calculate,  within  certain  limits,  what  the  heat  must  be 
in  regions  lower  still. 

(b)  The  study  of  art  is  an  efficient  auxiliary  to  all  other  studies. 
Art  is  the  interpretation  of  nature  as  she  appears  in  her  various 
phases ;  and  as  nature  is  presented  to  the  vision  in  her  subtle  forms 
and  varied  effects  of  chiaroscuro  and  color — with  great  thoughts 
embodied  —  she  requires  from  the  artist  his  closest  attention  to  her 
truths,  discouraging  all  theories  that  may  do  violence  to  them. 
In  physical  treatises  Aristotle  is  overturned  by  Bacon;  music  and 
the  drama  have  undergone  great  transformations,  but  Phidias  has 
never  been  overturned,  neither  has  Greek  art  evolved  into  a  bet- 
ter. The  truths  then  discovered  and  embodied  in  material  form 
were  absolute ;  and  thus  they  remain.  It  is  this  absoluteness  in 
art  which  renders  it  so  efficient  a  study  for  the  young.  Its  truths 
cannot  be  evaded  nor  tampered  with.  The  so-called  realistic 
novelist  may  blunder  repeatedly  in  his  pictures  of  life  and  the 
drawing  of  his  characters,  which  pass  unchallenged  except  by  the 
studious  observer.  Should  an  artist  make  like  blunders  he  would 
become  not  only  the  object  of  criticism,  but  of  ridicule.  But  ... 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  193 

Aristotle  says  that  the  work  of  the  artist  is  not  simple  representa- 
tion of  ordinary  fact,  but  of  the  universal  and  ideal  which  underlies 
the  ordinary  fact,  and  that  here  is  where  poetry  is  more  philosophic 
than  history. 

(c)  The  notion  prevails  in  this  country  that  we  are  a  very 
practical  people.  We  take  credit  to  ourselves  for  being  sensible, 
shrewd,  and  at  least  mindful  of  our  own  interests.  This  quality 
gets  a  harsher  name  from  our  foreign  critics.  They  say  that  we 
are  materialistic,  grasping,  and,  in  fact,  sordid,  as  the  thing  we 
care  most  for  is  money,  and  that  which  we  are  most  alive  about  is 
our  material  interests.  They  admit  that  we  are  "  smart,"  but  say 
that  we  are  mentally  commonplace  and  unimaginative.  .  .  .  We 
are  a  very  imaginative  people,  and  in  many  ways  the  most  unprac- 
tical. The  old  stage  conception  of  Uncle  Sam  as  a  good-natured 
rustic  sitting  in  a  rocking-chair,  whittling,  was  not  altogether  out 
of  the  way.  Whittling  is  not  a  renumerative  occupation,  as  a  rule, 
although  this  quaint  waiter  on  Providence,  who  seemed  to  imagine 
that  if  he  sat  at  ease,  all  good  things  would,  in  the  course  of  time, 
pass  his  way,  occasionally  did  whittle  out  an  invention  that  would 
save  him  from  labor.  He  answered  the  gibes  of  his  critics  by 
pointing  out  the  fact  that  the  chair  he  sat  in  was  a  self-rocker  — 
a  little  invention  of  his  own.  He  was  a  man  of  vague  dreams 
and  imaginations. 

5.  —  (Sections  2-3)  —  In  each  of  the  following  paragraphs 
a  sentence  is  out  of  place.  By  a  careful  analysis  discover 
the  misplaced  sentence  and  put  it  where  it  belongs. 

(a)  The  progress  of  every  country  is  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  alert  and  trained  minds  which  it  contains.  Their  knowl- 
edge becomes  the  public  knowledge;  their  opinion  becomes  public 
opinion.  National  blunders  and  national  misfortunes  are  almost 
invariably  the  fruit  of  ignorance.  Prosperity  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  knowledge.  And  as  in  every  community  the  bulk  of  the 
people  are  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  subsistence  —  the  lawyer  by 
his  cases,  the  merchant  by  his  wares,  the  doctor  by  his  patients, 
the  workman  by  labor  —  the  duty  of  accumulating  knowledge  and 
thinking  for  the  community  devolves  upon  a  few  who  are  more 
highly  trained  than  the  rest  and  more  clear  headed.  Where  these 


194  ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

select  minds  are  numerous  and  powerful  the  community  will  be 
intelligent  and  prosperous;  where  they  are  few  and  timid  the 
community  will  be  narrow  and  stunted  in  its  growth.  It  is  the 
business  of  high  education  to  develop  as  large  a  body  as  possible 
of  these  choice  minds  so  that  among  them  a  few  will  be  found 
who  may  become  leaders  of  men  and  leaders  in  the  right  direction. 

(b)  When  the  wise  man  uttered  the  familiar  aphorism,  "As  a 
man  thinketh  in  his  heart,  so  is  he,"  he  expressed  not  merely  a 
moral  maxim  but  a  scientific  truism.     What  men  mentally  dwell 
upon  they  become  or  grow  like.     The  scientific  way  to  destroy  evil 
is  not  to  hold  it  up  and  analyze  it  in  order  to  make  it  hateful, 
but  rather  to  put  it  out  of  the  consciousness.    The  quality  of  think- 
ing determines  consciousness,  and  consciousness  forms  character. 
Character  is,  therefore,  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an  habitual 
quality  of  consciousness.     Action  is  often  temporarily  modified 
from  motives  of  outward  policy,  but  its  constant  effort  is  to  be- 
come a  true  copy  of  the  inner  pattern.     No  matter  to  what  extent 
one  may  detest  a  crime,  he  cannot  immerse  his  consciousness  in  its 
turbid  waves  without  taking  on  some  of  its  slime  and  sediment. 

(c)  Let  us  see  what  effect  the  single  tax  would  have  in  any  city 
or  village.     It  would  wipe  out   most  of  the  selling  price  of  idle 
land,  because  the  tax  on  such  land  would  be  just  as  much  as  it 
would  be  on  land  next  to  it  which  had  buildings  or  improvements 
on  it.     This  would  prevent  owners  from  holding  land  out  of  use 
simply  for  speculative  purposes,  for  they  would  know  that  as  the 
land  increased  in  value  the  taxes  would  increase  in  proportion. 
There  would  no  longer  be  lack  of  opportunities  for  the  profitable 
employment  of  capital.     Thus  land  would  become  accessible  to 
.those  who  really  want  it  to  use,  and  men  would  no  longer  have  to 
go  long  distances  to  get  ground  on  which  to  build  when  there  was 
idle  land  near  at  hand.     Land  would  be  free.     On  the  other  hand, 
all  improvements,  being  released  from  taxation,  would  receive  an 
enhanced  value.   This  would  stimulate  industry,  while  thrift  and 
enterprise  would  receive  their  just  reward  instead  of  being  fined  as 
at  present     The  land  grabber,  who  holds  land  idle  and  will  neither 
use  it  himself  nor  let  others  use  it,  would,  like  his  historic  proto- 
type, find  his  occupation  gone.     We  can  afford  to  spare  him,  as  he 
stands  ever  a  bar  to  progress,  demanding  tribute  of  the  industrious 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  195 

community.  He  would  soon  mingle  in  the  ranks  of  the  legitimate 
industries  and  add  to,  instead  of  detracting  from,  the  common 
weal.  There  would  no  longer  be  the  temptation  to  conceal  prop- 
erty by  perjury  for  the  purpose  of  evading  taxes. 

(d)  It  is  a  nice  matter  to  keep  the  proper  balance  between 
boasting  and  humility,  but  if  any  error  is  to  be  committed  it  had 
better  be  on  the  side  of  humility.  True  humility  has  in  it  some 
quality  of  virtue,  and  is  therefore  to  be  preferred  to  mere  boastful- 
ness.  But  mock  humility,  based  upon  hypocrisy,  is  a  vice  of  a  very 
mean  order.  Boasting  is  the  result  of  unfounded  vanity.  The  man 
of  real  merit  has  no  occasion  to  boast,  nor  as  a  rule  does  it  occur 
to  him  to  do  so.  Self-confident  and  resourceful,  he  relies  upon 
himself  so  completely  that  he  never  thinks  of  sounding  his  own 
trumpet.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  of  humility  is  often  timid, 
inclined  to  self-depreciation,  or  else  is  a  hypocrite,  assuming  an 
humble  part  to  deceive  and  because  he  has  been  taught  to  look 
upon  humility  as  a  virtue.  The  boastful  man  suffers  much  for 
his  folly.  He  is  always  being  humiliated  by  disclosure  of  the 
hollowness  of  his  pretensions.  Unless  he  is  extremely  callous  he 
becomes  more  wary  as  experience  teaches  him  the  consequences  of 
his  vanity,  and  as  a  result  notorious  boasters  are  usually  young 
men.  But  there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules.  Sometimes  the  habit 
becomes  so  ingrained  that  it  persists,  as  with  Falstaff,  until  the 
boaster  has  long  passed  middle  age. 

6.  —  (Sections  5-9) — Criticise  the  following  paragraphs, 
pointing  out  violations  of  the  laws  of  unity,  selection,  pro- 
portion, and  sequence.  Rewrite,  varying  the  form  of  ex- 
pression without  changing  the  idea. 

(a)  Without  doubt  the  first  requirement  of  the  successful  re- 
porter nowadays  is  that  he  shall  not  only  dress  like  a  gentleman, 
act  like  a  gentleman,  but  shall  be  a  gentleman.  He  is  usually  a 
man  from  twenty-five  to  forty-five  years  of  age.  In  appearance 
he  is  so  much  like  the  successful  broker,  the  well-informed  and 
prosperous  merchant  or  lawyer  or  man  of  culture,  that  from  his 
dress  he  might  easily  pass  as  any  of  them.  He  is  almost  never 
seen  with  a  note-book,  and  rarely  uses  one  except  to  record  names 
and  dates.  He  is  quiet  and  dignified  in  his  behavior,  considerate 


196          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

in  his  thoughts  and  ways.  He  has  a  long  interview  with  a  man 
and  instinctively  knows  what  to  suppress,  what  to  modify,  what 
grammatical  errors  of  colloquial  speech  to  omit —  in  short,  how  to 
arrange  a  man's  words  as  the  average  man  likes  to  appear  when 
speaking  in  print.1  The  most  successful  reporter  in  New  York  is 
without  doubt  the  college-bred  man.  There  are  scores  of  non-college 
men  in  the  business,  and  many  of  them  are  among  the  leaders,  but 
other  things  being  equal,  the  college  men  invariably  go  to  the  front.1 
Some  one  has  said  that  the  chief  drawback  of  a  reporter's  calling 
is  that  it  exposes  him  to  all  kinds  of  weather  and  to  all  kinds  of 
people.  That  is  true,  but  even  this  has  its  advantages.  Exposure 
to  weather  when  one  is  properly  prepared  is  healthful  and  often 
invigorating.  The  same  is  true  of  exposure  to  people.  No  other 
occupation  has  the  variety  —  some  of  it  undesirable2  —  of  that  of 
the  reporter.  Almost  every  day  brings  a  new  task  for  him.  He 
rubs  against  luxury  and  misery.8 

(b)  A  common  misapprehension  among  literary  men,  that  is  to 
say,  versifiers  and  novelists,  is  that  literature  is  a  matter  of  words, 
a  thing  of  collocation  and  orthoepy,  whereas  its  chief  and  essential 
function  is  to  express  sentiment  and  thought,4  and  the  composition 
of  an  impressive  painting  involves  a  like  process  of  thought  through 
which  a  poet  would  have  to  pass  in  writing  on  the  same  incident. 
The  picture  may  be  more  effective  than  the  poem.  The  poem  must 
be  read.  The  picture  must  be  seen.  Now,  the  tendency  of  the  true 
drama  is  to  symbolize,  to  present  living  pictures;  while  economy 
in  words  is  one  of  the  pressing  needs  in  vitalizing  a  strong  action. 
The  dramatist,  however  happy  he  may  be  in  his  diction,  knows 
that  the  literary  trick  can  only  give  finish  or  incidental  aid  ;  that  a 
drama  is  not  a  literary  thing  at  all,  in  the  sense  of  being  hammered 
together  out  of  words ;  and  that,  in  fact,  it  is  no  drama  unless  it 
remains  incomplete  in  its  effectiveness  until  it  is  acted.  But  even 
if  the  "  literary  "  part  of  it  be  inconsiderable,  yet  if  it  accomplishes 
a  worthy  purpose,  it  is  literature.  With  this  distinction  8  in  mind, 


1  Unity.    Rewrite  hi  three  distinct  paragraphs. 

2  Should  this  phrase  be  omitted  ? 

*  The  paragraph  seems  incomplete.    "Why  ? 

4 Is  this  comparison  properly  introduced  and  clearly  developed? 

» Is  the  distinction  clear? 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  197 

it  is  well  to  turn  to  some  facts  in  the  history  of  letters,  that  ac- 
count, in  a  measure,  for  some  of  the  misapprehensions.  The  con- 
ditions of  the  Greek  drama  were  very  peculiar,  yet  its  plays  were 
written  to  be  acted,  and  in  tragedy  were  highly  poetic.  The  tech- 
nique of  that  stage  permitted  an  ideal  union  of  the  literary  and  the 
dramatic  ;  but  the  poetic  drama  is  only  one  form.  In  all  genuine 
and  bustling  comedy,  ancient  or  modern,  the  literary  element  has 
small  part.  Plautus  was  not  a  man  of  words.  His  plays  were  for 
the  stage.  Real  life  requires  the  language  of  the  day,  and  the 
artificialities  of  literature  are  entirely  foreign  to  it,  for  a  good  play 
is  life  itself.  Again,1  verse  is  merely  a  convenience,  and  the  belief 
that  literature,  particularly  as  it  concerns  the  drama,  belongs 
almost  solely  to  this  form  of  expression  has  long  been  exploded, 
and  has  troubled  no  man,  with  any  appreciation  of  facts,  since  the 
days  of  the  extinct  school  of  Corneille.  The  abandonment  of  verse 
was  an  emancipation.  The  drama  has  not  declined  ;  it  has  simply 
expanded.  It  is  constantly  expanding  and  gaining  new  forms 
and  fresh  strength.  From  the  Shakespearean  standard  in  the 
matter  of  the  poetic  form  it  has  declined.2 

(c)  Conversational  brilliancy  is  as  distinctly  a  gift,  not  to  be 
acquired,  as  is  any  other  natural  talent,  and  the  fortunate  possessors 
of  it  are  to  be  admired  and  envied.  But  the  average  of  talkers 
can,  with  care  and  training,  remedy  natural  defects,  or  heighten 
natural  cleverness  to  the  extent  of  making  themselves  at  least  in- 
teresting in  their  conversation.  To  restrain  its  range  within  such 
narrow  limits  as  to  restrict  its  subjects  to  mere  idle  gossip  is  cer- 
tainly not  a  fault  that  one  cannot  correct,  for  ordinary  intelligence 
and  ordinary  knowledge  only  are  required  to  attain  such  informa- 
tion as  will  render  pure  gossip  a  matter  of  choice  and  not  of  neces- 
sity. The  ordinary  topics  of  the  day  now  embrace  in  themselves 
an  astonishing  width  and  variety  of  subject-matter,  since  they  in- 
clude the  practical  application  of  so  much  science  to  the  affairs  of 
daily  life,  the  increasing  popular  interest  in  matters  of  political 
government  —  foreign  and  domestic  —  the  general  discussion  of 

ils  the  force  of  this  connective  clear?  Analyze  the  paragraph,  dis- 
cover its  theme  and  principal  ideas,  and  rewrite. 

2  Does  this  sentence  bring  the  thought  of  the  paragraph  to  a  fitting 
close  ? 


198          ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

moral  and  social  problems  that  events  have  forced  on  the  direct 
attention  of  the  public  at  large,  and  the  infusion  into  the  ordinary 
atmosphere,  more  or  less,  of  the  spirit  of  scientific  investigation.1 
The  average  minds  on  which,  after  all,  the  world  depends  for  the 
carrying  out  of  the  work  planned  by  the  thinkers,  need  the  mutual 
friction  that  intelligent  talk  gives  their  abilities,  and  the  recreation 
of  the  pleasures  of  mutual  talk.  To  this  end  the  cultivation  of  a 
clear  and  distinct  style  of  speaking,  of  the  habit  of  observation,  of 
the  acquisition  of  ordinary  knowledge  of  the  current  events  and 
ideas  of  the  day,  of  succinctness  of  expression,  of  liveliness  in  nar- 
ration, of  an  equal  readiness  to  receive  and  impart  ideas,  of  courtesy 
and  good  temper  in  argument  —  this  cultivation  is  within  the  reach 
of  each  and  every  one  not  abnormally  stupid,  and  would  repay  the 
patience  and  perseverance  of  its  pursuit.  Conversation  is  by  no 
means  a  lost  art ;  but  the  main  trouble  is  that  it  is  too  seldom  re- 
garded as  an  art  at  all.  Yet  no  nation  is  so  naturally  equipped  to 
become  one  of  good  talkers  as  our  own. 

(d)  A  Cent  School  is  so  called  because  the  children  who  come 
to  it  bring  each  one  a  cent,  clutched  tightly  in  a  little  hand,  or 
knotted  in  the  corner  of  a  handkerchief,  a  daily  offering.  If  the 
cent  is  forgotten,  or  lost  on  the  way,  the  child  goes  home  for  an- 
other, that  is  all,  and  has  a  scolding  for  carelessness  into  the  bar- 
gain. The  littlest  children  go  to  it2  —  used  to  go,  rather,  for  indeed 
this  should  all  be  in  the  past  tense  rather  than  the  present.  tin- 
Cent  School  being  a  thing  of  the  past  and,  as  one  might  say,  a 
great-aunt  of  the  present  kindergarten,  an  old  woman  from  the 
country,  who  is  rather  plain  in  her  ways.  Eunice  Swain  would  have 
thought  a  kindergarten  foolishness.  Her  children  did  not  come 
to  school  to  be  amused,  but  to  work.  She  put  them  on  benches  in 
her  big  kitchen,  because  it  was  warm  there,  and  sat  in  the  dining- 
room  door,  and  taught  them,  or  chastised  them,  as  the  spirit  bade 
her.  She  taught  the  three  R's,  and  manners,  and  truth-telling, 
and,  above  all,  humility,  impressing  on  these  infants,  daily,  that 
they  belonged  to  a  generation,  not  of  vipers  exactly,  but  of  weak- 
lings. 


i  Unity  ?    Sequence  ?    What  should  be  done  with  this  sentence  ? 
8  Unity  ?    Sequence  ?    Analyze  the  paragraph  and  rewrite  it. 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  199 

(e)  If  a  boy  who  comes  to  town  can  begin  by  paying  his  way 
in  the  most  economical  manner,  he  will  do  remarkably  well.  The 
chances  are  against  his  doing  as  much  as  that,  so  great  is  the  de- 
mand for  places.  Some  men  even  pay  to  have  their  sons  taken 
into  great  mercantile  establishments,  though  the  general  experience 
of  merchants  is  that  the  boys  who  come  from  poorer  homes  and 
have  been  brought  up  to  hard  work  are  more  likely  to  push  ahead. 
Natives  and  foreigners  who  have  learned  frugality  and  have  known 
hardship  from  their  boyhood,  are  getting  ahead  of  those  brought 
up  more  tenderly.  Yet,1  as  I  said  before,  a  country  boy  who  must 
earn  his  own  support  from  the  very  beginning  should  not  risk  his 
fortune  in  a  great  city  until  he  has  found  an  actual  opening  there. 
It  is  better  for  him  to  compel  fortune  where  he  is;  to  improve  the 
chance  nearest  to  his  hand ;  *  this  country  is  increasing  so  rapidly  in 
population  and  in  the  variety  of  its  industries  and  their  demands  that 
throughout  its  extent  new  opportunities  for  a  career  are  constantly 
arising.  Probably  2  the  United  States  will  contain  at  least  200,000,000 
of  people  by  the  time  boys  who  read  this  paper  have  reached  middle 
life,  and  are  in  the  prime  of  their  manly  power.  New  cities  will 
grow  up  by  the  hundred  and  new  outlets  for  energy  and  enterprise 
will  rise.8  The  twentieth  century  is  at  hand  and  it  will  bring  abun- 
dance of  work  and  plentiful  opportunities  for  every  boy  of  to-day  who 
lives  to  enjoy  its  light  and  participate  in  its  progress.  The  chances 
of  fortune  in  the  future  will  be  as  great  as  they  have  been  in  the 
past,  and  the  facilities  which  a  young  man  can  obtain  will  be  more 
numerous.  With  very  few  exceptions  4  —  you  could  count  them  on 
the  fingers  of  one  hand  —  the  great  fortunes  of  the  Union  have 
been  accumulated  within  the  last  fifty  years.  All  the  greatest  of 
them  have  been  made  within  that  period,  and  they  have  been  made 
by  country  boys.  6  But  there  is  something  more,  better,  and  higher 
than  a  fortune  to  make.  It  is  character ;  and  there  is  acquirement 
more  valuable  than  the  acquirement  of  money,  and  it  is  the  knowl- 
edge which  enables  a  man  to  get  the  most  out  of  life  and  to  make 
himself  of  the  most  use,  whatever  his  circumstances,  whether  he 
lives  among  the  crowd  of  a  great  city  or  in  the  solitude  of  a  country 
farm. 


1  Unity?  2  Sequence?  8  Unity?  4  Sequence? 

«  Unity  ?    Rewrite  in  two  distinct  paragraphs. 


200          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

(f)  There  is  some  impatience  with  the  epoch  of  Queen  Anne. 
We  do  not  mean  the  Augustan  age,  as  it  used  to  be  called  —  in 
which,  however,  it  would  not  be  easy  to  point  out  the  Virgil  or  the 
Horace  —  but  the  era  of  the  Queen  Anne  house,  the  epoch  of  deco- 
rative art  in  building  and  in  furnishing.     But,  on  the  other  hand,1 
the  epoch  of  Queen  Anne  is  a  delightful  insurrection  against  the 
monotonous  era  of  rectangular  building  and  of  the  divorce  of  beauty 
and  use.2     The  distinction  of  the  present  or  recent  dispensation  is 
that  the  two  are  blended,  that  neither  the  house  nor  anything  in  it 
need  be  clumsy  or  ugly.    There  is  no  longer  an  excuse  for  an  un- 
sightly table  or  chair  or  utensil  or  the  least  object  of  household 
convenience.     There  need  be  no  more  waste  spaces  in  the  house. 
The  old  entry,   which  had  degenerated  from  a  hall  into  a  mere 
lobby  or  vacant  passage,  is  now  taken  into  the  general  "  treatment " 
of  the  interior,  and  becomes  a  delightful  part  of  it,  as  pleasant  and 
home-like  as  any  other.     The  staircase  is  no  longer  a  railed  ladder, 
but  has  risen  into  a  chief  ornament  of  the  house,  as  the  noble 
staircases  in  the  new  Capitol  of  New  York  are  the  most  imposing 
of  its  details  and  decorations. 

(g)  A  man  who  is  in  the  Wisconsin  penitentiary  for  life  has 
appealed  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  suggesting  that  as  it  is 
difficult   to  recruit   men  for  the   Navy,   the  department  might 
find  a  large  number  of  men  in  the  penitentiaries  who  would  be 
willing  to  serve  in  the  Navy  rather  than  in  prison.     This  prisoner 
had  reasons  aside  from  his  desire  for  release,  for  writing  his  letter ; 
during  the  Civil  War  prisoners  were  taken  from  penitentiaries,  and 
enlisted  in  both  armies,  North  and  South,  and  many  of  them  made 
good  soldiers.8    Of  course  it  would  seem  to  degrade  the  naval  ser- 
vice to  adopt  such  a  policy,  but  why  should  our  thought  run  in  that 
direction  ?    We  educate  convicts  to  be  shoemakers,  and  to  other 
trades,  in  prison ;  why  might  we  not  set  apart  certain  war-ships  to 
be  manned  by  United  States  prisoners?    They  would  be  quite  as 
safe  in  a  war-ship  at  sea,  their  confinement  would  be  as  close,  their 
work  as  hard,  and  the  punishment  as  severe  as  when  confined  in 
any  stone  building  that  is  protected  with  iron  bars  and  doors. 

1  Is  "  But,  on  the  other  hand  "  the  proper  connecting-phrase  to  use  here  ? 
Point  out  the  two  ideas  in  adversative  relation. 

s  Is  the  reference  clear  ?  *  Unity  ?    Is  this  sentence  needed  ? 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  201 

(h)  Literary  societies,  as  a  rule,  are  short  lived.  The  varied 
business  and  family  and  social  duties  of  members  drift  them  apart 
after  a  few  years  of  regular  association,  but  such  societies  seldom 
altogether  die  out.  They  may  not  hold  regular  meetings  or  keep 
a  record  of  their  proceedings,  but  the  members,  or  some  of  them, 
get  together  on  occasion  and  live  over  again  the  old  life,  contrast- 
ing it  with  the  present.  1  There  are  disadvantages  as  well  as  ad- 
vantages arising  from  an  extended  literature  of  an  ephemeral  kind. 
A  greater  number  of  people  become  refined  and  educated  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  there  is  less  of  solid  reading  and  reflection  even 
on  the  part  of  the  few.  Under  such  conditions,  the  association  of 
literary  minds  is  required  to  give  purpose  and  effect  to  reading. 
That  we  may  not  scatter  too  much  in  reading  and  in  the  subjects 
of  thought,  it  is  desirable  that  kindred  minds  should  come  together 
and  concentrate  thought  and  study  upon  particular  branches  of 
literature.  This  might  not  be  desirable  if  literature  were  less 
plentiful,  but  there  is  little  danger  in  these  days  that  even  a 
specialist  will  become  too  narrow-minded.  Try,  though  he  may, 
to  limit  his  thought  to  a  single  field,  the  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines will  keep  him  informed  about  other  subjects  than  the  one  to 
which  he  gives  serious  study.  l  The  young  folks  of  to-day  have 
greater  opportunities  than  were  offered  to  preceding  generations  to 
store  their  minds  with  information,  refine  their  tastes,  and  lay  up 
for  themselves  pleasures  that  last  as  long  as  life  and  reason.  They 
can  do  this  in  a  measure  by  the  reading  of  good  books;  they  can  do 
it  more  effectively  by  adding  thereto  association  with  young  people 
of  similar  tastes  and  ambitions.  For  the  pleasures  of  literature 
are  not  transient ;  they  linger  in  the  memory  and  are  revived  by 
every  old  association,  as  of  well-loved  books  or  well-loved  friends. 

(i)  In  the  thronged  walks  of  great  cities  one  can  easily  single 
out  the  artist  if  he  have  an  observant  eye.  A  certain  nonchalance 
of  gait  and  manner  distinguishes  him  from  the  passing  throng. 
In  him  you  remark  none  of  the  haste  and  bustle  of  the  eager  man. 
If  not  overworn,  he  may  wear  a  regardful  joined  to  a  contemplative 
air.  The  oatloaf,  carelessly  wrapped  under  the  arm  of  one,  desig- 
nates him  as  the  crayon  artist,  for  this  is  an  indispensable  adjunct 

1  Sequence  ? 


202  ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

to  his  work  when  the  pencil  is  in  hand.  *  To  enjoy  the  society  of  a 
coterie  of  artists  is  to  see  and  enjoy  society  under  a  new  and  en- 
lightening phase.  But,  in  the  meantime,  they  idealize  as  it  is  their 
nature  to  do,  and  lead  a  life  quite  aside  from  the  majority  of  their 
fellows.  They  appreciate  sport  and  recreation,  life  on  the  sea,  as 
a  yachting  cruise,  or  in  the  woods  and  mountains,  their  sketching 
at  hand.  The  idealist  is  no  imitator,  and  variation  from  the  com- 
mon theme  marks  his  every  mood  and  action.  To  this  factor  in 
his  composition  we  may  trace  his  occasional  departure  from  the 
accepted  styles  of  costume,  or  of  wearing  the  hair,  a  trivial  matter 
except  as  it  becomes  an  occasion  of  misapprehension. 

7.  —  (Sections  5-9)  —  Reduce  each  of  the  following  para- 
graphs to  a  single  compact  sentence.  See  to  it  that  the  re- 
lation of  main  and  subordinate  ideas  is  the  same  in  the 
sentence  as  in  the  paragraph.  Avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
phrasing  of  the  original. 

(a)  Each  individual  has,  locked  in  his  personality,  a  secret,  a 
problem  meant  to  benefit  himself  and  the  race.  It  is  the  sphinx's 
conundrum,  and  each  must  solve  it  or  perish.  The  city  offers  a 
million  opportunities  for  its  solution  where  the  country  offers  one. 
A  Thoreau  or  an  Emerson  may  find  sermons  in  the  running 
brooks,  but  most  of  us  need  more  explicit  teaching,  and  this  the 
city  affords.  All  the  faculties  are  stimulated  to  the  highest  ex- 
ercise, and  the  achievement  of  an  entire  population  re-enforces  in- 
dividual effort.  Failing,  one  may  try  again,  starting  on  a  lower 
level ;  it  is  only  the  totally  incompetent  who  lie  prone  in  a  pitiful 
heap  at  the  foot  of  the  ladder  of  endeavor.  Always  the  construc- 
tive element  is  stronger  than  the  destructive,  and  for  one  that  falls, 
a  hundred  rise.  So  the  standard  of  living  is  lifted  higher  and 
higher,  while  the  fallen  receive  the  aid  of  the  successful  and  their 
children  an  education  that  shall  prevent  their  fall.  This  is  the 
aim  of  the  public  schools,  and  an  aim  that  experience  must  ulti- 
mately attain.  With  civilization  there  is  no  longer  independence, 
but  interdependence.  No  man  lives  or  dies  to  himself  alone; 
physically,  mentally,  and  morally  he  is  lifted  up  or  dragged  down 

1  What  is  the  connection  of  this  and  the  following  sentence  with  the 
rest  of  the  paragraph  ?  Rewrite,  omitting  irrelevant  ideas. 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  205 

by  his  fellows,  but  this  united  effort  gains  for  each  a  freedom  that 
would  otherwise  be  impossible  of  attainment.  This  is  the  signifi- 
cance of  all  organization ;  the  unavailing  effort  of  one  is  multi- 
plied by  the  efforts  of  all,  and  the  strength  of  many  makes 
a  mighty  power  which  upholds  the  world.  Nor  does  the  individual 
lose ;  each  individuality  is  a  thousand-fold  more  forceful  in  that 
it  has  the  support  of  the  tremendous  appliances  worked  out  by  the 
minds  and  arms  of  all.  A  bar,  however  strong,  is  of  little  use  as  a 
lever  unless  it  has  something  to  rest  upon.  With  the  universe  at 
command,  what  cannot  the  individual  achieve? 

(b)  The  more  men  there  are  who  are  self-employing  and  self- 
directing,  and  the  fewer  there  are  who  are  dependent  on  the  will 
of  others  for  the  employment  that  means  life  and  comfort  to  them 
and  their  families,  the  better.  Ten  thousand  men  worth  a  hun- 
dredth of  a  million  dollars  apiece  are  worth  a  thousand  times  as 
much  to  a  nation  and  the  world  as  one  man  worth  a  hundred  mil- 
lions. Every  man  who  runs  his  own  business  offers  opportunity 
for  a  higher  grade  of  workers,  and  the  stimulus  of  this  opportunity 
is  felt  by  the  very  lowest.  A  hundred  such  will  give  employment, 
perhaps,  to  an  equal  number  of  superintendents,  overseers,  book- 
keepers and  junior  partners  —  all  winning  their  own  way  to  inde- 
pendency. Unite  these  businesses,  and  instead  of  an  aggregate  of 
three  or  four  hundred  assistants  we  have  perhaps  a  score  hardly 
better  paid  and  with  much  less  prospect  of  independence  before 
them.  The  others  are  driven  to  some  other  avenue  of  self-support, 
adding  just  so  many  families  to  the  army  of  dependent  laborers. 
Thus  the  over-enrichment  of  one  means  the  impoverishment  of 
many  and  adds  to  the  competition  impelled  by  necessity,  which  is 
the  means  by  which  the  many  are  deprived  of  opportunity.  "  Skin 
for  skin ;  all  that  a  man  hath  will  he  give  for  his  life,"  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  those  who  are  shut  up  to  wage-earning  for 
a  livelihood  the  greater  the  competition  which  drives  the  lower 
ranks  into  want  and  desperation.  It  is  always  the  lower  stratum 
that  feels  first  and  most  keenly  the  force  of  harsh  conditions,  be- 
cause upon  it  rests  the  weight  of  the  entire  superstructure.  When- 
ever the  number  of  the  employers  of  labor  is  reduced,  the  number 
of  the  employed  is  increased ;  and  when  the  number  of  the  higher 
grades  of  employees  is  reduced,  the  ranks  of  the  lower  grades  are 
swollen  to  that  extent.  With  this  cumulative  pressure  the  num.- 


204          ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

bers  of  the  unemployed  are  necessarily  enhanced,  and  the  weakest 
of  the  weak  feel  first  the  pangs  of  absolute  dependence.  It  is 
from  them  that  the  cry  for  amendment  always  comes  the  first. 
Their  methods  of  amendment  may  be  wrong,  usually  are  in  fact, 
but  their  prescience  of  evil  is  unerring.  They  know  where  the 
shoe  pinches,  though  they  seldom  know  how  to  remedy  the  defect. 

(c)  To  bring  genuine  art  in  its  highest  forms  to  the  multitude 
is  a  good  work,  in  the  most  emphatic  sense  of  the  term.  To  con- 
tribute toward  spreading  its  influence  among  the  masses  is  a  dis- 
tinct and  lovely  charity.  Public  art  galleries  and  free  concerts 
have  a  distinct  public  educational  value  that  is  too  often  non- 
appreciated,  because  their  results  are  too  subtle  for  quick  and 
material  perception.  Many  deprecate  such  missionary  work  on 
the  ground  that  it  is  sentimental  and  trivial,  compared  to  the  press- 
ing physical  necessities  of  the  lower  classes.  Such  theorists  look 
on  these  efforts  with  a  sneer,  preferring  what  they  call  doing  prac- 
tical good.  Yet  the  mind  is  as  real  as  the  body,  and  satisfaction 
of  its  needs  just  as  practical.  One  requires  food  as  absolutely  as 
the  other,  or  it  will  starve ;  from  the  men  and  women  in  whom  the 
animal  nature  finds  no  check  in  the  mental,  we  get  our  ignorant, 
our  paupers,  our  criminals,  our  social  brutes,  not  our  successful  — 
our  inventors,  our  thinkers,  our  social  benefactors.  If  art  had  no 
mission  to  perform,  the  love  of  it  would  have  no  existence.  The 
mistake  is  to  look  on  it  as  a  luxury,  and  not  a  necessity  of  life. 
An  art-loving  people  must  be  an  intelligent  people,  and  less  ad- 
dicted than  others  to  grosser  pleasures.  To  awaken  a  love  and 
appreciation  of  it,  to  provide  opportunities  for  its  public  enjoy- 
ment, to  increase  facilities  for  the  development  of  obscure  talent, 
is  as  practical  a  labor  as  it  is  noble.  —  Baltimore  A  merican. 

(d)  The  interests  of  labor  and  capital  are  in  no  way  identical 
under  our  present  system  of  commercialism.  The  employer  is  in 
business  to  make  money,  and  to  do  that  he  will  reduce  wages,  water 
stocks,  evade  the  payment  of  taxes,  violate  contracts,  and  perjure 
himself  where  dollars  are  in  sight.  That  applies  to  the  majority 
of  those  doing  business  in  the  United  States  and  is  due  to  the 
heartless,  conscienceless  commercialism  of  the  age.  So  long  as  it 
is  to  the  interest  of  one  man  to  increase  his  wealth  on  an  investment 
of  honest  money,  and  so  long  as  he  will  increase  the  stock  of  his 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  205 

concern  double  and  treble,  basing  the  increase  of  stock  on  fictitious 
values  commonly  known  as  water,  so  long  as  it  is  to  his  pecuniary 
interest  to  get  as  many  strokes  as  possible  of  the  hammer  out  of 
the  workman  for  the  lowest  compensation,  and  so  long  as  it  is  to 
the  interest  of  the  workman  to  get  as  high  a  rate  of  wages  for  the 
shortest  number  of  hours,  it  is  hypocritical  to  assert  that  the  in- 
terests of  labor  and  capital  are  identical.  They  are  identical  in 
but  one  way  —  they  are  both  striving  to  make  the  most  money 
possible  on  an  investment  of  dollars  and  muscle.  The  trades 
unions  cannot  solve  the  industrial  problem,  and  it  never  will  be 
solved  until  the  public  conscience  is  stirred  to  such  depths  as  to 
cause  the  great  mass  of  the  people  who  toil  with  hand  and  brain, 
who  labor  for  bread,  and  who  sympathize  with  those  who  labor 
for  bread,  to  realize  that  the  labor  question  is  in  reality  a  mis- 
nomer. —  T.  V.  Powderly. 

(e)  All  nations  in  turn  and  under  various  pretexts  have  at- 
tacked the  Turk.  Not  content  with  this,  they  have  given  him  the 
reputation  of  being  a  "sick  man,"  and  have  approached  him  with 
financial  aid.  But  the  more  money  is  lent  him,  the  less  he  has, 
and,  notwithstanding  this  fact,  lenders  continue  to  approach  him 
and  aasure  him  of  their  good  services.  The  Turk  has  so  many 
friends  of  this  class  that  they  become,  in  his  sight,  obtrusive  and 
domineering.  They  all  vie  with  each  other  to  convince  him  that 
what  he  wants  is  guns,  rifles,  and  war-ships,  and,  as  he  cannot 
buy  from  all  at  one  and  the  same  time,  he  can  not  arrive  at  a  deci- 
sion ;  he  fears  to  displease  those  whom  he  does  not  favor  with  an 
order,  and  who  would,  perhaps,  cause  him  to  meet  with  trouble  of 
some  sort.  The  situation  is  a  most  curious  one,  for  this  customer, 
who  has  the  reputation  of  being  sick  and  ever  without  funds,  is 
nevertheless  considered  a  good  customer,  whose  orders  are  wrangled 
for.  Matters  have  reached  such  a  pass  that  the  largest  contractors 
in  the  world  have  in  his  domains  not  only  travelling  representatives, 
but  also  fixed  agencies  and  complete  administrative  committees, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  institute  and  follow  up  negotiations  with  a 
view  to  secure  business,  and  who  are  backed  by  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  their  several  countries.  There  are  also,  arid 
among  the  most  energetic,  the  representatives  of  continental  gun- 
makers  and  builders  of  war-ships  ;  the  former  are  vigorously  seek- 
ing to  sell  to  Turkey  guns  for  which  the  market  elsewhere  is  just 


ASSIGNMENTS   OX    THE  PARAGRAPH. 

now  very  slack ;  and  the  latter  endeavoring  to  burden  the  Sultan 
with  a  stock  of  battle-ships,  torpedo-boats,  cruisers,  and  scouts,  for 
which  he  has  no  use.  The  agents  of  these  firms  attract  notice  by 
their  insistence.  Whether  Turkey  requires  guns  and  armored 
cruisers,  or  not,  is  not  the  question  ;  the  agents  are  in  the  country 
to  secure  orders,  and  orders  are  what  they  must  secure.  All  this 
is  sorrowfully  beheld  by  the  patriotic  and  enlightened  Turks  who 
have  at  heart  the  development  of  their  country. 

8.  —  (Sections  5-9)  —  State  the  substance  of  the  following 
selection  in  a  single,  compact  paragraph,  omitting  digres- 
sions and  useless  repetitions. 

Poetry  is  virtue  expressed  in  figures  of  speech.  Poetry,  I  would 
say,  is  the  religion  of  words,  while  religion  is  the  poetry  of  deeds. 
So  that  a  truly  religious  man  is  a  living  poem.  There  is  rhythm 
in  his  voice,  meter  and  measure  in  his  conduct,  ideality  in  his 
thoughts,  and  sublimity  in  his  emotions.  His  life  becomes  a  poem 
set  to  the  music  of  harmonious  action.  To  ascend  still  higher  in 
the  affinity  between  religion  and  poetry,  I  would  say  that  both 
are  based  on  revelation,  religion  on  the  direct  revelations  of  God 
to  man  —  poetry  on  the  revelations  of  that  beauty  and  loveliness 
that  lie  hidden  in  nature  and  man.  In  fact,  had  we  no  religion 
to  teach  us  of  a  God,  poetry  would  unfold  to  us  his  everlasting 
manifestations.  As  there  is  a  beautiful  image  in  every  piece  of 
marble  which  the  sculptor's  art  may  bring  forth,  so  there  are  God's 
secrets  and  lessons  in  the  rocks  and  rills,  in  the  flowers  and  trees, 
which  a  poet  only  can  truly  depict.  The  ancients  were  right  in 
making  their  prophets  and  poets  identical,  as  is  shown  by  the 
word  vattt  which  expresses  both  ;  for  the  poet,  as  the  prophet,  is  a 
priest  of  God. 

The  soul  requires  its  proper  nourishment  as  well  as  the  body. 
It  is  poetry  which  feeds  the  hunger  of  the  human  heart  for  im- 
mortality. All  things  physical  teach  decay  and  death.  Poetry 
idealizes  and  symbolizes  all  our  surroundings  and  transfigures  even 
the  sad  habiliments  of  death  with  life  immortal.  None  can  read 
Wordsworth's  Ode  to  Immortality  without  being  transported 
from  this  vale  of  tears  and  sadness  into  a  happier  world  of  thought 
and  feeling.  We  should,  however,  cherish  and  foster  poetry ;  not 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  207 

only  for  its  own  sake  and  its  own  beauty,  not  only  as  the  hand- 
maid of  religion,  a  teacher  of  idealism  and  morality,  as  a  revealer 
of  the  secrets  of  nature  and  hence  as  a  priest  of  God;  not  only  as 
a  comforter  and  messenger  of  good  tidings  of  another  world  and 
better  life,  but  for  the  sake  of  religion  itself  as  its  strongest  bul- 
wark. Poetry  is  one  of  the  most  conservative  of  influences.  It 
preserves  the  scenes  of  the  past  and  the  evanescent  feelings  and 
emotions,  and  is  perpetuating  those  lessons  and  hidden  meanings 
of  things  already  old,  which  would  otherwise  be  lost.  This 
fact  is  especially  serviceable  with  regard  to  the  forms  and  cere- 
monies of  religion.  They  are  an  essential  part  of  faith,  but  seem 
often  useless  from  a  prosaic  handling.  Poetry  envelops  them  with 
renewed  meaning  and  life,  and  by  carrying  the  form  in  ever  roseate 
habiliments  perpetuates  at  the  same  time  the  lesson  and  the  doc- 
trine. Poetry  invigorates  the  Sabbath  and  holidays,  every  prayer 
and  fast,  with  the  new  idea  of  modern  life.  Especially  in  times  of 
doubt  and  scepticism  is  this  a  great  service  to  religion.  And  in 
another  direction  poetry  can  demolish  the  very  stronghold  of  doubt 
by  poetizing  science  as  Tennyson  has  done  in  his  In  Memoriam. 
Here  the  poet  has  sought  to  discover  a  unity  beneath  all  the  dis- 
cordant part  of  nature  which  the  scientist  with  his  crucible  and 
microscope  could  never  find.  And  it  seems  strange,  yet  wonder- 
fully true,  that  while  poetry  thus  naturally  seeks  to  elevate  faith 
and  draw  it  nearer  to  God,  it  elevates  itself  also.  No  great  poet 
ever  lived  but  stood  on  the  vantage  ground  of  faith  and  aspired  to 
reach  the  throne  of  God.  If  Whittier  and  Tennyson  have  gained 
the  ear  of  mankind  it  was  by  this  intense  religious  fervor  which 
breathes  through  their  verses.  Of  ancient  Hebrew  poetry,  notably, 
the  Psalms  of  David  have  been  truly  called  "  gorgeous  palaces,  the 
materials  of  which  have  been  supplied  by  faith." 

9.  —  (Sections  5-9)  —  State  in  a  single  paragraph  the  point 
and  substance  of  the  following  conversation :  — 

Mr.  Kearney  was  crushing  the  withered  needles  beneath  his 
massive  tread,  and  tracking  his  way  unhesitatingly  through  a 
labyrinth  that  to  Gerald  seemed  trackless.  The  black  coat  and  the 
white  collar  that  had  been  donned  in  the  honor  of  Eureka  had 
given  place  to  a  stout  flannel  shirt,  belted  in  at  the  waist ;  and  the 


208          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

big  man  looked  the  better  for  the  change — more  solid  and  business- 
like. He  was  glancing  at  the  timber  with  a  practical  eye,  occasion- 
ally  pausing  to  rest  his  hand  against  one  of  the  great  trunks  and 
to  glance  upward,  as  if  to  estimate  how  high  it  ran  before  branch- 
ing. The  young  journalist  mentally  compared  him  to  a  butcher 
appraising  the  value  of  a  likely  beef  before  he  ordered  it  slaught- 
ered. Gerald  loved  fine  timber,  and  he  spoke  with  this  feeling 
strong  in  him. 

"  It  seems  a  sin  and  a  shame  to  cut  down  such  trees,"  he  said, 
with  a  touch  of  indignation  in  his  voice. 

Kearney  turned  and  looked  at  him. 

"Ehl  That's  the  way  it  seems  to  ye,  I  don't  doubt.  Look 
deeper,  man,  look  deeper." 

Gerald  stared  at  him  in  astonishment,  but  Mr.  Kearney  went 
on. 

"  It's  the  destiny  of  every  forest  to  be  6rst  cut  down  and  then 
cut  up  for  the  use  o'man.  Which  had  the  biggest  share  of  honor 
—  the  trees  that  was  left  standin*  in  Tarshish,  or  them  that  was 
brought  to  Jerusalem  to  build  Solomon's  temple?" 

Had  Solomon  himself  in  all  his  glory  appeared  in  one  of  the  dim 
arcades  he  would  scarcely  have  surprised  young  French  more  than 
did  this  utterly  unlooked-for  reasoning  in  the  man  beside  him. 

"  For  see  here  now,"  pursued  Kearney,  having  paused  a  moment 
for  the  answer  that  did  not  come,  "  this  tree's  a-growin'  here  an' 
has  been  for  a  thousand  years,  maybe  two;  no  man  knows  till 
she's  cut  an*  he  counts  the  rings  in  her.  Down  she  comes  to- 
morrow, we'll  say,  an1  then  what?  Maybe  this  wood  will  floor  a 
ball-room,  an*  be  touched  by  pretty  feet  you'd  sooner  kiss  than  the 
Pope's;  maybe  it'll  build  the  house  that  the  Prisident  of  the 
United  States  '11  be  born  in  ;  maybe  a  bit  of  it'll  be  the  soundin'- 
board  of  a  pulpit,  an'  echo  God's  word  preached  to  the  savin'  of 
who  knows  how  many  souls.  Isn't  that  better  for  it  nor  growin' 
an'  rottin'  an*  shakin*  pine  needles  down  on  yer  head  an'  mine  ?  " 

By  this  time  Gerald  had  found  his  tongue.  "  I  had  no  idea  you 
were  so  imaginative,  Mr.  Kearney,"  he  said. 

"  I  dunno  as  it's  all  imagination,"  answered  Kearney.  "  Maybe 
it  is:  anyhow,  it's  possible,  an'  one  thing's  sure.  Let  this  timber 
stand,  an'  never  a  foot  but  an  Injun's  will  pass  under  its  shadow  ; 
cut  it  down,  an*  ye  fill  the  bay  with  sails,  ye  put  bread  in  men's 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  209 

mouths,  an'  ye  give  me  the  means  o'  doin'  what  I'm  bound  to  do 
—  o'  makin*  a  man  o'  Jimmy  such  as  his  father  never  had  the 
chance  to  be." 

"  You're  right  and  I'm  wrong,"  said  Gerald,  somewhat  touched 
by  the  earnest  note  in  his  host's  voice  as  he  uttered  the  last  words. 
"  They're  fine  trees  ;  but  down  with  them,  and  make  a  ladder  for 
your  boy  to  climb  as  high  as  you'd  like  to  see  him."  —  Jessup: 
Under  the  Redwood  Tree. 

10.  —  (Sections  5-9)  — Kewrite  the  following  wordy  news 
telegram,  reducing  it  to  about  three  hundred  words.  Pre- 
serve all  the  important  news. 

SAN  DIEGO,  CAL.,  April  14,  1908.  —  The  American  battleship 
fleet  sailed  to-day  on  a  summer  sea.  In  four  regularly  intervaled 
columns,  with  flagships  leading  abreast  and  pointing  the  way 
to  the  first  home  anchorage  the  fleet  has  found  in  its  four  months 
of  cruising  around  the  southernmost  end  of  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, the  sixteen  ships  swept  into  the  sheltered  cove  of  the 
sea  behind  the  towering  headlands  of  Point  Loma,  and  halted 
for  four  days  of  merry-making  for  men  and  officers.  Governor 
James  N.  Gillett  was  here  officially  to  welcome  the  fleet.  His  call 
upon  Rear  Admiral  Robley  D.  Evans,  who  took  the  fleet  out  of 
Hampton  Roads  last  December,  was  paid  during  the  afternoon. 
Local  committees  also  went  to  the  Connecticut  to  tell  Admiral 
Thomas,  and  through  him  all  the  men  of  the  fleet,  how  glad  the 
people  of  California  are  to  see  such  a  splendid  representation  of 
the  American  navy  as  the  "  battle  fleet "  constitutes.  To-night 
Admirals  Thomas,  Sperry,  and  Emery,  and  the  commanding  officers 
and  members  of  the  various  staffs,  were  entertained  at  an  elaborate 
but  informal  dinner  at  the  hotel  Del  Coronado.  It  was  their  first 
taste  of  the  hospitable  functions  which  have  been  planned  in  their 
honor  all  the  way  to  San  Francisco  and  beyond.  The  beauty  of 
the  da^'s  spectacle,  when  with  flashing  signals  and  wonderfully 
executed  manoeuvres  the  ships  were  brought  to  anchor  in  the  lazy 
rolling  Pacific  waters,  was  rivalled  to-night,  when  for  three  hours 
every  vessel  was  outlined  in  fire.  Thousands  of  incandescent  bulbs 
were  strung  along  decklines,  up  masts,  far  out  on  the  signal  yard- 
arms,  up  and  down  the  huge  funnels  and  down  to  the  water's  edge 


210          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

at  stem  and  stern.  In  fairy -like  form  the  ships  stood  out  against 
the  night,  and  in  letters  six  feet  high  the  name  of  each  vessel  was 
spelled  across  its  forward  bridge.  The  glow  of  the  lights  flooded 
the  sea  for  thousands  of  yards  away,  the  gleaming  outlines  shim- 
mering  in  phantom-like  reflections. 

During  all  this  radiant  display  the  old  lighthouse  marking  the 
rounding  point  to  the  north  —  Point  Loma's  lonely  beacon  —  flashed 
its  alternating  red  and  white  signals  in  democratic  simplicity,  and 
wholly  unmindful  of  the  spectacle  the  coming  of  the  ships  and  their 
illumination  afforded.  On  shore  scores  of  red  signal  fires  were 
maintained  throughout  the  evening  as  a  welcome  sign,  and  above 
all,  high  in  the  reaches  of  the  sky,  shone  a  brilliant  southern  moon, 
hurrying  its  way  to  romantic  fulness. 

The  fleet  let  go  its  anchors — all  splashing  in  the  water  with 
precision  at  12.47  P.M.  —  just  thirteen  minutes  before  the  anchor- 
ing hour  arrived.  For  two  hours  the  ships  had  been  in  sight  and 
their  coming  had  been  watched  with  wonder  by  the  waiting  throngs. 
Never  before  have  armor-clads  of  the  Connecticut  type,  displacing 
more  than  16,000  tons  of  water  in  their  occupancy  of  the  sea,  been 
seen  along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  occasion  of  their  first  visit  is  to 
be  made  a  memorable  event  wherever  they  touch  port  or  cruise  close 
enough  to  the  shore  to  be  seen  by  the  cities  and  resorts  that  skirt 
the  edge  of  the  coast. 

The  splendid  condition  of  the  ships  was  manifested  in  every  way. 
Outwardly  they  were  the  same  sparkling  white  and  buff  units  of  a 
powerful  aggregation  of  fighting  force  that  pointed  their  way  out 
of  Hampton  Roads  on  a  home  coast,  3000  miles  away,  with  the 
President  showing  the  way  on  his  cruiser-yacht,  the  Mayflower. 
Internally  the  ships  were  in  better  condition  than  when  they 
started,  engines  working  with  the  smooth  thrust  and  throw  of  per- 
fect bearings  and  careful  handling,  and  boilers  making  steam  with 
less  consumption  of  coal  because  of  the  increased  efficiency  in  the 
firing  rooms.  The  wash  of  the  waves  along  the  water  line  dis- 
played from  two  to  three  feet  of  red  armor  belts  and  showed  com- 
paratively little  sea  growth,  despite  the  long  stay  in  the  temperate 
and  tropical  waters. 

Rear  Admiral  Charles  M.  Thomas,  commanding,  was  on  the 
bridge  of  the  Connecticut  as  the  fleet  steamed  to  its  anchorage. 
The  absence  of  Rear  Admiral  Evans,  who  is  ill  at  Paso  Robles,  is 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  211 

deeply  regretted  on  all  sides.  Admiral  Thomas  at  the  dinner  re- 
ferred to  the  matter  with  much  feeling. 

Filmy  ribbons  of  smoke  on  the  horizon  gave  the  first  hint  of  the 
approaching  vessels  this  morning,  although  wireless  messages  had 
already  told  of  their  near  presence.  Eyes  were  strained  to  catch 
the  first  glimpse  of  the  ships,  and  telescopes  and  marine  glasses 
were  at  a  premium.  The  day  had  opened  black  and  threatening, 
and  it  was  not  until  after  10  o'clock  that  the  sun  burned  its  way 
through  the  bank  of  lowering  clouds.  Once  its  rays  had  penetrated 
the  mist,  however,  the  sky  quickly  cleared,  and  by  the  time  the 
fleet  came  into  view  there  was  not  a  fleck  to  be  seen. 

The  Connecticut  was  here  two  weeks  ago  with  Admiral  Evans, 
but  she  was  gray  with  the  grime  of  heavy  target  practice  then, 
while  to-day  she  appeared  an  immaculate  picture  in  white  and 
buff. 

To  the  left  of  the  Connecticut  steamed  the  Georgia,  flagship  of 
Rear  Admiral  Emery,  commanding  the  second  division,  and  in  her 
wake  were  the  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  and  New  Jersey.  The 
third  line  from  the  shore  was  headed  by  the  Alabama,  flagship 
of  Rear  Admiral  Sperry,  who  is  now  in  command  of  the  second 
squadron  and  third  division,  but  soon  is  to  be  the  senior  officer 
of  the  entire  fleet.  With  the  Alabama  were  the  Illinois,  Kearsarge, 
and  Kentucky.  The  fourth  and  outward  column  was  headed  by 
the  Maine,  with  Captain  Giles  B.  Harbor  flying  a  triangular  flag 
of  blue  from  the  main  truck,  denoting  temporary  command  of  the 
division,  which  included  the  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  Minnesota.  The 
absence  of  Rear  Admiral  Evans  leaves  a  vacancy  in  flag  rank  in 
the  fleet. 

When  about  a  mile  and  a  half  off  shore,  a  four-hoist  signal 
flashed  from  the  forward  arm  of  the  Connecticut.  "  Stand  by  to 
anchor,"  it  was  read,  and  in  the  space  of  a  few  seconds  answering 
signals  in  duplicate  were  broken  out  from  all  of  the  ships. 

The  vari-colored  flags  showed  their  reds,  blues,  and  yellows 
brilliantly  in  the  sun,  and  gave  a  gala  appearance  to  the  fleet.  No 
ideal  of  the  marine  artist  could  have  added  to  the  effect.  Speed 
cones  hanging  from  yard-arms  on  the  flagships  gradually  descended 
and  the  white,  combing  bow  waves  in  front  of  the  advancing  ships 
grew  fainter  and  fainter  until  only  the  wash  of  the  blue  waves 
against  the  cutwaters  was  left,  and  the  ships  stood  motionless. 


212          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

No  commanding  voice  or  pipe  of  boatswain  could  be  heard  on 
shore,  but  almost  simultaneously  anchors  were  loosened,  and  the 
splash  of  water  as  the  heavy  iron  hooks  dragged  several  tons  of 
heavy  chain  after  them  into  the  sea  told  of  the  safe  arrival  home 
of  the  most  noted  of  America's  fleet. 

Lost  in  admiration,  the  crowds  ashore  forgot  to  cheer.  Absolute 
silence  marked  the  arrival. 

11.  —  (Section  12)  —  Narrow  each  of  the  following  general 
subjects  to  an  available  working  theme,  and  then  give  to 
each  an  appropriate  title : l  — 

1.  Earthquakes.  16.  Postage  Stamps. 

2.  Sports.  17.  Africa. 

3.  Fiction.  18.  Irrigation. 

4.  Travel.  19.  Insects. 

5.  Air-ships.  20.  Home  Rule. 

6.  Electricity.  21.  Interoceanic  canals. 

7.  Dogs.  22.  Radium. 

8.  Spelling.  23.  The  Short  Story. 

9.  Railways.  24.  College  Papers. 

10.  Talking  Machines.  25.  Mining. 

11.  Mountains.  26.  Forestry. 

12.  Libraries.  27.  American  History. 

13.  Kipling.  28.  Tramps. 

14.  Music.  29.  Advertising. 

15.  Photography.  30.  Strikes. 

12.  —  (Section  12)  —  Find  the  working  theme  in  each  of 
the  first  ten  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A,  and  give  to  each  an 
appropriate  title. 

13.  —  (Section  12)  —  Give  appropriate  single  headings  to 
five  short  editorial  paragraphs  to  be  found  in  any  carefully 

1  Examples  of  paragraph-titles  may  be  found  in  the  newspapers  and  in 
the  marginal  notes  of  such  books  as  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Gar- 
diner's Thirty  Years'  War,  Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Creighton's 
Age  of  Elizabeth,  and  Hallam's  Work*.  The  short  isolated  paragraphs 
to  be  found  in  the  editorial  columns  of  the  newspapers,  and  the  related 
paragraphs  of  most  books,  are  usually  printed  without  titles. 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  213 

edited  newspaper.  Of  the  headed  articles  in  the  news- 
columns  of  the  papers,  the  first  generally  corresponds  to 
the  title,  and  the  second,  which  is  usually  longer,  corre- 
sponds, roughly,  to  the  working  theme. 

14.  —  (Section  13)  —  Find  the  topic-statements  of  the  para- 
graphs quoted  in  the  introductory  chapter  of  this  book. 
In  each  case  phrase  a  brief  and  appropriate  title  for  the 
paragraph. 

15. —  (Section  17)  —  Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  the  topic-statement  comes  first ;  first  and  last ;  last. 

16.  —  (Section  17)  —  Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  the  topic-statement  is  implied.  Discover  the  theme  in 
each  of  these  paragraphs  and  state  it  in  a  brief  sentence  or 
phrase  suitable  for  a  title. 

17. —  (Sections  14-17)  —  Supply,  as  skilfully  as  you  can, 
the  topic-statements  which  have  been  omitted  from  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs :  — 

(a)  ...  Instead  of  seeking  for  light,  we  set  up  an  intellectual, 
religious  or  political  standard  of  our  own  creation  or,  worse  yet, 
accept  one  made  for  us  by  others.  The  struggle  for  existence  is  so 
intense  that  but  few  take  the  time  to  do  their  own  thinking.  Of 
course,  it  is  easier  to  accept  ready-made  ideas,  but  if  all  of  us 
would  follow  blind  leadership  so  blindly  we  should  soon  be  a  na- 
tion of  intellectual  slaves.  It  is  the  solemn  duty  of  every  citizen 
to  analyze  the  peculiar  measures  and  doctrines  which  may  from 
time  to  time  agitate  the  country.  He  should  give  a  dispassionate 
hearing  to  the  advocates  of  both  sides,  read  the  evidence  in  a 
judicial  spirit,  and  consider  the  probable  effects  of  the  rejection 
or  adoption  of  the  policy  or  law  under  discussion.  After  arriving 
at  a  conclusion  he  should  have  the  courage  to  maintain  his  position 
under  any  and  all  circumstances,  and  the  good  taste  of  listening 
with  deference  to  the  opinions  of  his  antagonists.  In  no  other 
way  can  true  independence  of  character  be  developed.  By  no 
other  method  can  free  institutions  be  preserved.  A  nation  whose 


214          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

citizens  have  learned  to  think  for  themselves  cannot  be  conquered 
in  war  nor  excelled  in  peace.  —  Chicago  Graphic. 

(b)  •  •  .     We  find  this  exemplified  by  the  thousands  of  books  of 
travel,  which  are  written  after  a  few  months  mostly  spent  in  catch- 
ing trains  and  boats  and  in  the  inspection  of  public  buildings,  when 
all  the  world  is  on  the  offensive  and  holds  one  at  arm's  length.    To 
state  the  case  paradoxically,  the  only  way  in  which  one  can  travel 
and  see  anything,  is  to  settle  down  and  learn  the  secrets  contained 
within  the  radius  of  a  square  mile.     Thoreau,  as  I  am  reminded, 
puts  this  much  more  suggestively,  when  he  says,  "  I  would  fain 
travel  by  a  foot-path  round  the  world."    The  man  who  cannot 
see  clear  through  rags  or  broadcloth,  and  find  the  Man  contained 
within,  ought  to  be  kept  away  from  pens  and  ink  and  paper; 
otherwise,  he  is  a  mischievous  force  in  the  world.     It  is  no  more 
the  office  of  literature  to  add  to  our  social  fog,  than  it  is  the  office 
of  chemistry  to  create  violent  stenches  for  the  sake  of  the  stench 
and  for  no  other  purpose.     The  rarely  beautiful  in  art  is  the  com- 
mon life  transfused  in  the  alchemy  of  beautiful  thought ;  and  this 
is  only  possible  to  writers  whose  intellects  are  true  to  their  imagina- 
tions, and  whose  hearts  are  good.     No  man  without  illusions  has 
ever  done  anything  great  in  art  —  anything  that  is  as  permanently 
true  as  the  divine  love  in  the  world  in  every  age.     It  is  the  living 
of  life   in  the  quick  which  compels  expression  and  makes  that 
expression  the  work  of  genius. 

(c)  ...     The  farmer's  son  who,  instead  of  staying  upon  his 
father's  acres,  or  of  acquiring  a  farm  for  himself  to  walk  behind 
the  plough,  runs  away  to  town  to  try  his  fortune  in  some  occupa- 
tion which  will  not  harden  his  hands  and  tan  his  skin,  is  no  longer 
an  exception,  but  is  fast  becoming  the  rule.     The  native  American 
no  longer  likes  to  dig  ditches,  or  to  work  on  the  highways,  or  to 
throw  up  railroad  embankments,  or  to  do  the  rough  work  in  coal 
mines.     But  this  class  of  work  has  to  be  done,  and  somebody  has 
to  be  found  to  do  it ;  if  not  the  native  American,  then  somebody 
else.     It  is  idle  to  say  that  the  native  American  is  crowded  out  of 
such  employment  by  the  competition  of  the  foreign  immigrant 
who  is  willing  to  work  for  lower  wages  ;  for  the  number  of  Ameri- 
cans  who  would    perform  that  sort  of    work,    were  the  wages 
ever  so  high,  is  entirely  insufficient,  and  constantly  growing  less. 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  215 

Here  is,  therefore,  an  indispensable  service  for  which  the  foreigner 
is  needed. 

18.  —  (Section    19)  —  Develop  the  following  topic-state- 
ments by  giving  the  particulars  and  details  which  naturally 
seem  to  be  called  for :  — 

1.  The  early  Pilgrim  Fathers  had  many  difficulties  to  overcome. 

2.  Even  in  the  smallest  towns  you  will  find  a  specimen  of  almost 

every  grade  of  humanity. 

3.  Napoleon  combined  in  himself  traits  of  character  that  are 

usually  thought  to  be  contradictory. 

4.  The  national  government  is  a  complex  piece  of  machinery. 

5.  Much  of  the  so-called  "  Great  American  Desert "  is  now  under 

cultivation. 

6.  Fashions  change  with  bewildering  rapidity. 

7.  It  seems  possible  to  carry  on  three  trains  of  thought  at  once. 

8.  Washington  in  his  lifetime  was  often   made  the  object  of 

bitter  denunciation. 

9.  Many  varieties  of  birds  are  seen  in  the  north  throughout  the 

winter  months. 

10.  One  may  find  in  the  state  of  California  almost  every  climate 

of  the  globe. 

11.  The  American  citizen  has  other  political  duties  besides  voting. 

12.  History  is  full  of  examples  of  heroism. 

13.  Elizabeth's  reign  was  most  eventful. 

14.  There  was  disaffection  in  the  South  for  years  before  the  war. 

15.  A  young  man  may  enter  public  life  by  any  one  of  several 

doors. 

16.  There  are  many  things  to  be  said  in  favor  of  a  longer  presi- 

dential term. 

17.  American  capitalists  have  had  what  they  think  to  be  good 

reasons  for  forming  trusts  and  combinations. 

19.  —  (Section  19)  —  Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  development  is  by  particulars  and  details. 

20.  —  (Section  20)  —  Develop  each  of  the  following  topic- 
statements  by  adding  sentences  that  restrict  or  enlarge  its 
meaning :  — 


216          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

1.  Not  all  poets  have  written  poems. 

2.  The  common  notion  of  success  is  fallacious. 

3.  There  is  a  kind  of  criticism  which  is  in  itself  creative. 

4.  A  good  partisan  is  not  always  a  good  citizen. 

5.  All  students  should  have  an  interest  in  sports. 

6.  Freedom  is  not  an  unmixed  blessing. 

7.  The  mind  is  in  one  sense  a  machine. 

8.  Books  are  sometimes  better  companions  than  persons. 

9.  I  have  said  that  Lincoln  was  trusted  by  all  the  friends  of 

the  Union;  but  the  word  trusted  is  not  strong  enough;  he 
was  .  .  . 

10.  We  speak  of  the  right  to  vote;  but  is  voting  properly  regarded 

as  a  right? 

11.  In  this  country  there  is  no  longer  any  North  or  South;  the 

terms  are  obsolete ;  there  is  only  .  .  . 

12.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  that  one  man  is  liberal  and 

another  man   is  conservative?    What  can  we  mean  but 
that  .  .  .? 

13.  Patriotism  is  the  last  refuge  of  a  scoundrel. 

14.  Ambition,  if  it  is  of  the  right  sort,  is  a  powerful  agency  for 

good. 

15.  Journalism  may  be  as  important  and  useful  a  profession  as 

literature. 

21. —  (Section  20) — Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  the  development  is  by  definitive  statements. 

22.  —  (Section  20)  —  Develop  the  following  topic-state- 
ments by  presenting  the  negative,  contrary,  or  contrasting 
ideas  which  suggest  themselves  in  connection  with  each:  — 

1.  To  eat  a  mouthful  of  food  or  to  take  a  breath  of  air  is  to  ex- 

pose one's  self  to  manifold  dangers. 

2.  No  man  ever  tells  the  whole  truth. 

3.  All  men  are  created  equal. 

4.  The  feudal  system  had  many  advantages. 

5.  The  United  States  would  gain  by  annexing  Canada. 

6.  Experience  is  a  dear  school. 

7.  To  take  one's  opinions  ready-made  from  others  saves  a  great 

deal  of  thinking. 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  217 

8.  A  high  tariff  promotes  infant  industries,  but  .  .  . 

9.  To  have  few  friends  is  one  way  of  escaping  grief  and  disap- 

pointment. 

10.  A  witty  Frenchman  once  said  that  language  is  given  to  men 

in  order  that  they  may  conceal  their  thoughts. 

11.  The  printing-press  has  done  much  harm  by  putting  worthless 

literature  within  the  reach  of  all  classes  of  readers. 

12.  One  effect  of  the  trusts  has  been  to  lower  the  costs  of  living. 

13.  Many  decisions  of  the  courts  are  manifestly  unjust. 

14.  All  things  come  round  to  him  who  waits. 

15.  Knowledge  breeds  discontent. 

16.  Geniuses  are  uncomfortable  persons  to  live  with. 

23.  —  (Section  20)  —  Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  the  development  is  by  negative,  contrary,  or  contrast- 
ing statements. 

24. —  (Section  21)  —  Develop  the  following  topic-state- 
ments by  adding  real  comparisons,  or  illustrations:  — 

1.  The  common  notion  of  success  is  fallacious. 

2.  A  bad  beginning  does  not  always  imply  a  bad  ending. 

3.  A  good  partisan  is  not  always  a  good  citizen. 

4.  The  study  of  Latin  may  be  for  one  student  as  practical  as  is 

the  study  of  engineering  for  another. 

5.  Reason  unaided  will  not  always  lead  a  man  to  correct  his 

errors. 

6.  A  republic  is  not  the  best  form  of  government  for  every 

nation. 

7.  The  greatest  names  in  literature  are  those  of  men  who  were 

not  rich. 

8.  An  examination  is  often  a  poor  test  of  a  student's  acquirements. 

9.  In  times  of  peril  the  strong  men  came  to  the  front. 
10.  Indiscriminate  charity  is  often  worse  than  none. 

25.  —  (Section  21) — Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  real  comparisons,  or  illustrations,  are  used. 

26.  —  (Section  22)  —  Develop  the  following   topic-state- 
ments by  giving  specific  instances  or  examples :  — 


218  ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

1.  Study  and  discipline  will  accomplish  much. 

2.  Shakespeare's  heroes  are  always  free  moral  agents. 

3.  One's  opinions  are  not  always  a  sure  indication  of  one's  prob- 

able conduct  in  a  given  case. 

4.  Mere  wishing  is  not  desire. 

0.  Unless  a  duty  is  performed  in  the  right  spirit,  it  is  not  done 

morally. 

«j.    We  need  not  go  far  from  our  own  homes  to  find  examples  of 
courage  and  fortitude. 

7.  Railroads  and  telegraphs  make  the  world  smaller. 

8.  It  is  the  minor  characters  in  Dickens's  novels  which  often 

prove  the  most  entertaining. 

27. —  (Section  22)  —  Find  paragraphs  ill  Appendix  A  in 
which  specific  instances,  or  examples,  are  used. 

28.  —  (Section  23)  —  Develop   the   following  topic-state- 
ments by  adding  reasons  that  are  not  specific  instances :  — 

1.  Senators  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 

2.  The  people  of  America  have  less  real  freedom  than  the  people 

of  England. 

3.  Rules  of  morality  have  little  effect  on  conduct. 

4.  Hamlet  was  not  insane. 

5.  All  anarchists  should  be  deported. 

6.  Prohibition  weakens  the  will  power  of  the  citizens. 

7.  The  United  States  would  gain  by  annexing  Canada. 

8.  Nothing  is  more  important  than  caring  for  the  health. 

9.  A  republic  is  not  the  best  form  of  government  for  every  nation. 

10.  Labor  unions  have  improved  the  condition  of  the  laborer. 

11.  Hamilton's  conception  of  government  was  superior  to  Jeffer- 

son's. 

12.  A  foreign  war  is  the  most  powerful  agency  in  uniting  all  parts 

of  the  country. 

13.  All  universities  should  be  controlled  and  supported  by  the 

government. 

14.  Longfellow  has  written  one  poem  that  will  live. 

15.  Life  was  more  interesting  fifty  years  ago  than  it  is  now. 

16.  A  great  deal  of  time  is  wasted  in  reading  the  daily  newspapers. 

17.  The  Mexican  war  was  unjustifiable. 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  219 

18.  The  government  should  establish  postal  savings  banks. 

19.  Municipal  elections  ought  to  be  non-partisan. 

20.  The  national  capital  ought  to  be  removed  to  a  place  nearei 

the  centre  of  the  country. 

29.  —  (Section  23) — Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A   in 
which  the  idea  is  developed  by  giving  reasons  for  the  topic- 
statement. 

30.  (Section  24) — Develop  the  following  by  making  one 
or  more   applications   of  the  principle  announced  in  each 
topic-statement :  — 

1.  The  dangers  of  work  are  not  the  greatest  in  the  world. 

2.  If  young  men  were  willing  to  forego  the  luxuries  of  life,  they 

might  easily  save  up  a  competence  for  old  age. 

3.  "  Know  thyself,"  the  wise  maxim  of  the  Greeks,  is  as  appli- 

cable to-day  as  it  was  2000  years  ago. 

4.  Nothing  succeeds  like  success. 

5.  The  best  business  methods  are  nothing  but  applied  honesty. 

6.  A  good  habit,  persisted  in,  becomes  continually  easier  of  per- 

formance. 

7.  A  nation,  like  a  person,  is  bound  by  the  demands  of  justice. 

8.  If  education  is  to  be  of  value,  it  must  be  systematic. 

9.  Recreation,  in  its  proper  place  and  time,  is  as  necessary  to 

mankind  as  work. 

10.  True  genius  thrives  on  discouragements  and  failures. 

11.  The  exercise  of  suffrage  is  a  duty. 

12.  Monopolies  are  seldom  beneficial  to  the  people. 

13.  Education  will  solve  the  race  question  in  the  South. 

14.  The  country  owes  a  debt  to  its  literary  men. 

15.  The  Bible  is  one  of  the  monuments  of  literature. 

16.  No  pursuit  is  ignoble  if  it  is  conscientiously  followed. 

17.  A  taste  for  books  is  a  safeguard  against  evil  thoughts. 

18.  A  good  memory  is  a  priceless  possession. 

19.  When   good   men   enter  politics,  corruption  will  go  out  of 

fashion. 

20.  Conversation  is  the  greatest  of  the  fine  arts. 

21.  Do  the  duty  that  lies  nearest  you. 

22.  It  is  false  charity  to  give  to  every  stranger  that  asks  for  aid. 


220          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

23.  The  shoemaker  should  stick  to  his  last. 

24.  Do  not  try  to  tell  all  you  know. 

25.  Good  workmanship  always  tells  in  the  end. 

26.  Do  not  be  ashamed  of  poor  relations. 

31. — (Section  24)  —  Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  the  development  is  from  the  statement  of  a  principle 
to  its  application. 

32. —  (Section  25)  —  Develop  the  following  topic-state- 
ments by  presenting  causes,  or  effects :  — 

1.  The  Civil  War  was  a  benefit  to  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 

2.  The  purchase  of  Alaska  was  a  profitable  investment. 

3.  The  predictions  of  the  weather  bureau  are  coming  to  be  more 

trustworthy. 

4.  Electricity  as  a  means  of  illumination  will  ultimately  supersede 

gas. 

5.  Strikes  will  become  rarer  as  time  goes  on. 

6.  A  standing  army  is  unnecessary  in  this  country. 

7.  Betting,  even  on  a  small  scale,  is  a  questionable  practice. 

8.  The  use  of  steel  and  concrete  has  brought  about  many  changes 

in  methods  of  building. 

9.  It  is  not  difficult  to  account  for  the  rapid  growth  of  Chicago. 

10.  The  destruction  of  our  forests  is  a  serious  matter. 

11.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  threw  the  country  into 

great  excitement. 

33.  —  (Section  25)  —  Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  in 
which  the  development  is  by  cause,  or  effect,  or  both. 

34.  —  (Sections  18-25)  —  Write  a  paragraph  of  150  to  200 
words  beginning  with  one  of  the  following  topic-statements. 
After  writing,  note  in  the  margin  the  various  methods  of 
development  that  you  have  employed. 

1.  In  this  age  novels  are  more  effective  than  sermons  as  teachers 

of  morality. 

2.  There  are  several  ways  of  learning  a  foreign  language. 

3.  A  high  tariff  has  both  good  and  evil  results. 

4.  The  telephone  may  be  a  nuisance  as  well  as  a  convenience. 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  221 

5.  All  great  men  have  had  their  moments  of  folly. 

6.  Newspaper  English  has  a  few  well-defined  characteristics. 

7.  Unanimity  should  not  be  required  of  a  jury. 

8.  There  should  always  be  a  motive  in  reading. 

9.  The  American  Indian,  as  represented  dn  the  old  school  readers, 

was  a  heroic  figure. 

10.  Novel-reading  presents  some  dangers. 

11.  All  have  their  peculiarities. 

12.  The  lazy  man  has  some  advantages  over  the  active  man,  after 

all. 

13.  Lincoln's  administration  was  most  eventful. 

14.  Reforms  are  being  advocated  without  number. 

15.  Book-buying  has  become  a  fine  art. 

16.  The  world  must  present  a  queer  spectacle  to  a  man  seven  feet 

tall. 

17.  Whittier's  poems  show  that  he  was  a  friend  of  the  slave. 

18.  Selfishness  often  defeats  its  own  ends. 

19.  Books  written  by  very  good  men  are  sometimes  extremely 

tedious. 

20.  Races  between  ocean  steamers  are  attended  with  great  danger. 

21.  There  are  persons  to  whom  the  commission  of  a  solecism  is 

nothing  short  of  a  crime. 

22.  At  the  opening  of  the  present  century  the  map  of  Europe  was 

in  many  respects  different  from  that  with  which  our  school 
children  are  familiar. 

23.  There  are  some  evils  unavoidably  connected  with   athletic 

sports. 

24.  Arbitration  will  ultimately  do  away  with  war. 

25.  The  newsboy  has  his  troubles. 

26.  A  great  navy  is  unnecessary  to  the  safety  of  this  country. 

27.  Washington  and  Lincoln  present  several  contrasts  in  character. 

28.  We  no  longer  know  how  to  live  upon  little. 

29.  It  is  said  that  every  man  has  his  price. 

30.  Confidence  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth. 

31.  There  is  an  art  of  spending  money  just  as  there  is  an  art  of 

making  money. 

32.  All  men  are  wiser  than  any  one  man. 

33.  The  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number  is  the  founda- 

tion of  morals  and  legislation. 


222          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

34.  Our  life  is  what  our  thoughts  make  it. 

35.  Nothing  is  the  worse  or  the  better  for  being  praised. 

36.  Very  little  is  needed  to  make  a  happy  life. 

37.  No  man  cau  produce  great  things  who  is  not  thoroughly  sincere 

in  dealing  with  himself. 

38.  Few  things  are  impossible  to  diligence  and  skill. 

39.  The  applause  of  a  single  human  being  is  of  great  consequence. 

40.  We  love  some  people  the  better  for  their  faults. 

41.  Censure  is  the  tax  a  man  pays  to  the  public  for  being  eminent. 

35.  —  (Section  26)  —  Find  introductory,  transitional,  and 
summarizing  expressions  in  some   of  the    paragraphs    of 
Appendix  A. 

36.  —  (Section  26)  —  Summarize   each   of    the  following 
paragraphs  in  a  brief,  pithy  sentence  or  maxim :  — 

(a)  Hardly  any  better  fortune  can  come  to  a  conscientious 
man  than  to  find  his  inclinations  fit  and  feasible  to  follow.     In 
many  cases  it  happens  through  no  fault  of  his  that  he  cannot  do 
what  he  wants  to.     Obligations  are  laid  upon  him  that  he  is  bound 
to  discharge,  and   in   discharging  them  he  has  to  turn  his  face 
whither  he  would  not  choose  to  go,  and  do  the  work  that  is  put 
before  him  rather  than  that  his  heart  is  in.     But  in  very  many 
other  cases  the  choice  is  within  his  reach,  if  only  he  has  the  man- 
hood to  make  it  and  the  resolution  to  stick  to  it.     If  there  are 
lions  in  his  path  he  must  have  grit  enough  to  drive  them  out  of  it, 
even  though  that  is  a  tedious  process.    When  the  choice  is  a  high 
choice,  and  the  man  is  a  strong  man  in  earnest,  the  lions  have  to 
move  out.     The  average  man,  of  course,  prefers  to  go  round  them, 
even  though  the  detour  gets  him  into  byways  that  are  not  of  his 
choice. 

(b)  If  people  could  get  the  idea  that  what  is  called  education 
is  a  good  thing  in  itself,  without  reference  to  its  practical  uses, 
what  a  long  step  ahead  the  world  would  take  !     The  notion  that 
education   must   be   for  some  definite  purpose  is  responsible  for 
much  misdirected  effort  and  many  disappointments.     If  we  were 
asked  what  is  the  great  need  of  the  day  in  ordinary  life,  we  should 
say  that  it  is  intelligent  readers  and  critical  appreciators  of  art. 
It  is  certainly  a  very  crude  idea  of  life  that  an  education  is  wasted 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  223 

if  it  is  not  practically  applied  to  one  of  the  learned  professions,  to 
authorship,  or  to  art,  or  to  teaching.  The  impulse  for  any  of 
these  careers  is  strong  enough.  What  needs  leavening  and  liberal- 
izing and  lifting  up  intellectually  is  the  great  mass  of  society. 

(C)  It  is  not  true  that  moral  reputation  is  a  poor  security  for  hon- 
est behavior  in  places  of  public  trust.  There  is  no  better  security 
than  the  recognized  fact  that  a  man  lives  an  upright  and  indus- 
trious life,  whatever  his  circumstances  may  be.  It  is  a  common 
thing,  of  course,  for  designing  men  to  make  loud  professions  of 
morality  only  to  cover  their  intentions  of  rascality ;  but  they  are 
as  often  rich  as  poor,  and  the  test  of  financial  condition  proves 
nothing  in  any  case.  The  remedy  for  municipal  corruption  does 
not  lie  in  giving  preference  to  men  on  the  score  of  the  supposed 
value  of  a  well-filled  pocket  as  a  protection  to  their  integrity. 
Neither  a  want  of  money  nor  an  abundance  of  it  is  a  conclusive 
recommendation.  Men  are  to  be  judged  not  by  the  amount  of 
their  possessions,  but  by  what  society  knows  of  their  personal  habits 
and  methods.  It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  the  people  of  a  city  fre. 
quently  elect  individuals  to  responsible  offices  who  have  no  stand- 
ing in  point  of  morals  or  of  business  ability,  and  who  could  not 
obtain  corresponding  employment  from  any  private  firm  or  corpo- 
ration, yhose  are  the  persons  who  concoct  schemes  of  municipal 
robbery,  and  whose  official  actions  can  always  be  controlled  with 
bribes.  If  the  reputable  voters  deliberately  choose  such  men  to 
manage  the  affairs  of  a  city,  they  must  expect  corruption  to  pre- 
vail. There  is  only  one  way  to  secure  the  right  kind  of  municipal 
government,  and  that  is  to  select  public  officers  with  the  same  re- 
gard for  capable  and  trustworthy  qualities  that  is  constantly  shown 
in  the  selection  of  agents  to  handle  funds  and  execute  other  impor- 
tant functions  in  the  ordinary  course  of  commercial  transactions. 

37.  —  (Section  26)  —  Supply  in  each  of  the  following  para- 
graphs a  brief  transitional  or  directive  sentence.  The  dots 
indicate  the  place  where  the  sentence  is  to  be  inserted.  The 
idea  of  the  omitted  sentence  is  to  be  discovered  by  a  care- 
ful analysis  of  the  paragraph. 

(a)  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  colleges  count  for 
more  in  the  thought  of  the  country  than  ever  before  in  its  history. 


224          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

There  have  been  times,  it  is  true,  when  college-bred  men  have  had 
more  exclusive  control  of  public  affairs,  and  have  given  them  more 
definite  guidance,  but  there  has  never  been  a  time  when  the  colleges 
counted  for  so  much  in  the  life  of  the  country,  or  when  their  adjust- 
ment to  the  life  was  so  complete.  The  changes  that  have  gone  on 
so  rapidly  in  college  management,  schemes  of  study,  and  student 
life  have  registered  a  corresponding  change  in  the  thought  and 
life  of  the  country.  Enormous  increase  of  wealth,  specialization 
of  work  and  occupation,  expansion  of  experience,  multiplication  of 
resource,  more  comfortable  and  luxurious  habits,  have  character- 
ized the  history  of  the  last  forty  years  on  this  continent,  and  the 
college  has  shared  in  these  tendencies.  Student  life  has  become 
more  luxurious  in  habit  and  appointment  simply  because  the  home 
life  from  which  the  students  come  has  grown  more  ample  and 
luxurious.  It  is  idle  to  accustom  young  men  to  habits  of  ease  at 
home  and  then  expect  them  to  adopt  Spartan  simplicity  at  college. 
The  college  is  too  intimately  allied  with  the  National  community 
to  resist  a  well-nigh  universal  tendency.  The  older  graduate,  who 
notes  the  change  from  the  severe  frugality  of  his  own  time  to  the 
ease  and  elaboration  of  to-day,  often  feels  that  such  a  change  is  nec- 
essarily disastrous.  .  .  .  There  is  more  vulgarity  in  this  country 
than  there  was  forty  years  ago,  but  there  is  also  a  far  richer  and 
more  wholesome  life.  There  are  more  resources,  more  pleasures; 
there  is  more  out-of-door  life,  more  health,  more  culture;  and  con- 
sequently, more  force.  We  are  entering  into  possession  of  the 
world  and  of  our  own  lives.  Instead  of  working  six  days  in  the 
week,  fifty-two  weeks  in  the  year,  we  are  giving  ourselves  time 
for  nature,  recreation,  rest,  and  social  intercourse.  Our  dress  is 
brighter  and  more  varied,  our  diet  is  ampler  and  more  nourishing, 
and  we  have  learned  the  value  of  open  air  and  exercise.  Our  gain 
in  weight,  stamina  and  health  even  in  twenty-five  years  is  notice- 
able. We  are  doing  more  work  than  ever,  but  we  are  doing  it 
under  better  conditions.  Continuous  work  in  one  direction,  with- 
out rest  or  variation  of  effort,  ends  in  physical  exhaustion,  as  un- 
broken monotony  of  habit  and  thought  is  very  likely  to  end  in 
insanity.  We  have  gained  immensely  in  physical  and  mental 
health  by  the  expansion  of  our  interests  and  the  multiplication  of 
our  resources.  We  buy  more  books  and  pictures,  hear  more  music, 
drive,  sail,  walk,  travel  and  lest  more  than  in  former  days,  and  we 


ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  225 

are  the  better  for  it.     We  have  gone  beyond  the  atheism  of  believ- 
ing that  rest  is  waste  and  wholesome  pleasure  sin. 

(b)  The  beauties  of  nature  are  to  the  layman  a  source  of 
pleasure.  He  views  the  ocean  in  the  serenity  of  a  calm  and 
peaceful  evening,  or  in  the  grandeur  of  a  tempest  at  noonday ;  the 
landscape,  with  its  gray  and  purple  mountains,  its  varied  dis- 
tance and  richly  colored  foreground;  the  sunset  with  golden  tones, 
and  the  moonlight  that  casts  a  silvery  radiance  o'er  the  scene  — 
these  are  to  him  the  emblems  of  poetry.  The  responsibility  of 
presenting  these  various  phases  of  nature  for  the  recognition  of 
others  is  not  his,  however.  He  has  only  to  enjoy  and  express  his 
feelings  in  a  general  way.  .  .  .  He  has  the  responsibility  of  ren- 
dering what  he  observes  for  the  enjoyment  and  instruction  of  men. 
He  must  heed  the  laws  which  govern  representation  in  art,  and 
those  rules  that  are  of  practical  importance  in  the  technical  work. 
It  is  not  sufficient  for  the  astronomer  to  see  ;  he  must  go  through 
with  calculations  of  which  the  mere  observer  knows  nothing.  So 
the  artist,  with  powers  of  his  own,  must  give  to  the  people  the  re- 
sults of  aesthetic  knowledge  derived  from  his  observation. 

(C)  Most  people  think  of  an  addition  to  a  nation's  dominions 
as  they  do  of  an  addition  to  an  individual's  possessions.  John 
Smith  is  more  prosperous  if  he  acquires  more  real  estate ;  and 
the  United  States  are  supposed  to  be  more  prosperous  if  they  ac- 
quire more  territory.  ...  I  see  little  in  the  whole  Hawaiian  epi- 
sode but  one  long  course  of  error.  The  American  consumer  has 
paid  for  thirty  years  (barring  the  brief  respite  while  the  McKinley 
tariff  act  was  in  force)  a  tidy  sum  annually  to  the  Hawaiian 
planters.  In  recent  times  this  tribute  has  amounted  to  twelve  or 
fifteen  millions  of  dollars  a  year.  For  this  we  have  nothing  of 
any  real  value  to  show,  —  unless  it  be  that  we  have  a  stepping- 
stone  to  the  Philippines,  another  dependency  hardly  less  unprofit- 
able. 

(d)  The  homes  of  fashionable  New  Yorkers  are,  as  a  whole, 
the  most  sumptuous  and  comfortable  in  the  world.  Space,  light, 
tempered  warmth  in  every  part,  ventilation  and  every  other  ac- 
cessory of  hygiene,  are  here  as  liberally  provided,  as  are  the  pic- 
turesque and  decorative  ideas  of  architects  of  the  highest  modern 
accomplishment ;  and,  in  numbers,  these  stately  dwellings  are  like 


226          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

strawberries  in  June.  From  them  we  may  go  on  to  a  wide  variety 
of  smaller  and  less  pretentious  houses,  in  which  also  may  be  ap- 
plauded the  best  art  of  our  modern  decorative  renaissance.  Old 
prosaic  structures  of  brownstone,  or  brick,  that  were  made  in 
former  days  to  enshrine  the  ugly  fittings  and  furniture  of  our  im- 
mediate predecessors,  pass  under  an  architect's  eclipse  to  reappear 
in  charming  and  covetable  guise,  every  corner  of  their  renovated 
interiors  an  invitation  to  domestic  rest  and  peace.  .  .  .  Through 
every  keyhole,  in  at  every  chink  and  cranny,  floats  the  atmosphere 
of  unrestf ulness  prevailing  in  America,  and  insistent  in  New  York. 
No  sooner  is  a  family  installed  in  the  new  abode,  than  one  hears 
of  its  going  off  to  try  life  in  some  other  quarter  of  the  globe. 
The  deserted  house  is  either  shut  up  in  desolation,  or  let  to  some 
one  else. 

38.  —  (Section  28)  — Account  for  any  inversions  you   find 
in  the  paragraphs  of  Appendix  A.     Often  the   reason  for 
the  inversion  will  be  clear  if  the  sentence  in  which  the 
inversion  occurs  is  rewritten  in  the  usual  order. 

39.  —  (Section  29)  —  Point  out    the    contrasting    words, 
phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences  in  some  of  the  paragraphs  in 
Appendix  A. 

40.  — (  Section   29)  — Find,  in  some  of  the  paragraphs  in 
Appendix  A,  illustrations  of  balanced  structure  and  parallel 
construction. 

41.  —  (Section  30)  —  Point  out,  in  some  of  the  paragraphs 
of  Appendix  A,  the  reference  words,  both  prospective  and 
retrospective,  used  to  carry  the  thought  from  point  to  point. 

42.  —  (Section  30)  — In  the  following  paragraphs  the  con- 
junctions and  connecting  phrases  such  as  but,  yet,  however,  no 
doubt,  of  course,  in  fact,  it  is  true,  moreover,  thus,  even,  also, 
hence,  on  the  other  hand,  etc.,  have  been  omitted.     Analyze 
each,  paragraph   and   supply   connectives   where,   in   your 
opinion,  they  are  needed :  — 

(a)    Healthy  Americans  for  the  most  part  are  interested   in 
sports.     A  newspaper  must  take  account  of  this  great  portion  of 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON  THE  PARAGRAPH.  227 

the  population  who  demand  sporting  news,  and  whose  demand  is 
so  reasonable  and  innocent  that  every  newspaper  now  prints  this 
information  fully  and  carefully.  This  is  one  of  the  offences  that 
glare  in  the  eyes  of  the  critics.  Every  newspaper  that  has  or  as- 
pires to  any  considerable  circulation  must  print  every  day  a  great 
multitude  of  items  of  news  that  for  many  of  its  readers  have  little 
or  no  interest  and  to  some  seem  quite  unworthy  the  space  they 
occupy.  The  number  of  men  and  women  who  take  no  interest  in 
the  proceedings  of  Congress,  who  do  not  care  to  know  what  the 
Legislature  may  be  at,  who  find  the  tariff  an  intolerable  nuisance 
and  the  silver  question  a  bore,  and  who  can  get  along  comfortably 
without  knowing  anything  about  great  public  affairs,  is  much 
larger  than  their  highly  educated  fellow-mortals  suspect.  These 
persons  are  mostly  of  orderly  lives,  simple  tastes,  and  innocent 
minds.  They  have  their  pursuits  and  their  pleasures,  and  they 
want  to  read  about  their  pursuits  and  their  pleasures  in  the  news- 
papers. They  have  an  appetite  for  almost  any  gossip  or  happening 
that  is  of  contemporaneous  human  interest  and  not  beyond  their 
range  of  sympathy  and  understanding.  Is  it  sinful,  is  it  debasing, 
is  it  vulgar,  to  print  news  readable  and  acceptable  to  this  audience, 
provided  the  matter  printed  is  not  immoral  or  improper?  I  do 
not  think  so.  This  class  of  persons  constitutes  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  the  population  of  every  town  or  city.  They  are  en- 
titled to  consideration  from  the  newspapers.  They  are  respectable, 
and  the  news  that  interests  them  is  respectable  news,  though  in 
point  of  historical  importance  it  usually  ranks  some  distance  below 
announcements  of  the  abdication  of  sovereigns  and  the  discovery 
of  new  and  valuable  laws  governing  the  action  of  tides  and  the  be- 
havior of  planets.  For  printing  such  news  the  press  is  denounced 
for  giving  up  so  much  space  to  "  trash." 

(b)  There  are  two  forms  of  criminality,  the  atavic  and  evolutional. 
Atavic  criminality  is  the  return  of  certain  individuals,  whose 
physiological  and  psychological  constitution  is  morbid,  to  such 
means  of  the  struggle  for  existence  as  civilization  has  suppressed, 
such  as  murder,  robbery,  etc.  The  natural  forces  which  formerly 
impelled  men  to  battle  in  this  sanguinary  manner  have  not  entirely 
ceased  to  act  upon  humanity;  they  still  act,  and  excite  men  to 
certain  antagonisms,  which  occupy  the  entire  life  of  almost  all 


228          ASSIGNMENTS  ON   THE  PARAGRAPH. 

humankind,  excepting  only  those  who,  possessing  a  superior  moral 
sense,  refuse  to  become  entangled  in  self-interested  struggles,  even 
if  this  course  of  action  costs  them  some  trouble.  The  means  of  the 
struggle  have  changed  through  the  influence  of  civilization;  these 
were  formerly  force  and  violence  ;  they  are  to-day  fraud  and  astute- 
ness. An  immense  number  of  thefts  are  committed  every  day,  of 
which  the  law  takes  no  cognizance;  human  cupidity  finds  means  of 
satisfying  itself,  even  if  it  does  not  employ  the  sword  and  poison, 
which  sometimes  makes  one  wonder,  with  horror,  if  all  human 
progress  is  not  menaced  with  failure.  This  is  the  transformation 
of  savage  criminality  among  civilized  people.  It  is  to-day  a  normal 
condition  of  existence  that  this  battle  of  astuteness  has  replaced 
the  war  of  the  muscles.  As  long  as  the  present  social  conditions 
last,  no  human  power  will  be  able  to  prevent  men  from  stealing 
from  each  other,  just  as  it  is  impossible  to  keep  men  living  in  a 
state  of  barbarous  anarchy  from  killing  each  other.  All  modern 
humanity  is  imbued,  to  some  extent,  with  evolutional  crimi- 
nality. Those  who  really  form  that  criminality,  which  I  call 
evolutional,  are  the  men  who,  endowed  with  a  greater  talent  or 
favored  by  a  too  prosperous  fortune,  push  that  battle  of  intrigue 
and  deceit  to  a  monstrous  excess,  which  makes  it  too  great  a  danger 
to  all  modern  society.  These  only  employ  to  a  great  extent  the 
means  of  enriching  themselves  that  all  the  world  uses  on  a  small 
scale.  Their  action,  on  account  of  the  excessive  development 
which  they  give  to  the  means  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  should 
be  considered  as  abnormal  and,  therefore,  punishable ;  while  the 
same  means,  applied  on  a  small  scale,  are  entirely  normal,  and, 
although  our  moral  sense  feels  them  unworthy,  remain  unpunished. 
Law  would  be  powerless  and  even  unjust  to  injure  them.  Those 
who  make  use  of  the  means  that  society  has  given  them,  without 
annoying  the  social  life  more  than  others,  are  evidently  only  using 
their  rights.  For  the  great  evolutional  criminals,  it  will  not  do  to 
trust  too  much  to  the  effects  of  punishment ;  they  are  the  product 
of  our  customs  and  will  always  be  found  so  long  as  our  customs 
remain  unchanged. 

43.  —  (Section  30)  —  Rewrite  the  following  paragraphs,  so 
varying  the  structure  of  the  sentences  as  to  avoid  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  conjunction  and:  — 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  229 

(a)  Thucydides  was   a   native   of  Athens,  born  of   a  wealthy 
family,  and  favored  with  a  fine  education.     He  was  so  charmed  at 
hearing  Herodotus  read  at  the  Games,  that  he  determined  to  become 
a  historian.     He  was  in  command   of   an  Athenian  squadron  of 
seven  ships  at  Thasos,  424  B.C.,  but  by  bad  management  he  fell  into 
disgrace  and  became  an  exile  for  twenty  years  to  escape  death. 
The  subject  of  his  history  is  the  Peloponnesian  War,  and  the  sad 
story  of  the  falling  glory  of  Athens.     He  saw  the  great  importance 
of  this  war  from  the  first,  and  watched  all  its  varying  phases  with 
the   greatest  interest,  intending  to  write  its  history.     He   spent 
much  time  and  care  in  collecting  his  material,  anil  he  has  left  us 
one  of  the  noblest  histories  in  the  world.     His  style  is  condensed, 
and  yet  ornate,  and  with  studied   periods.     He  has   been  styled 
"  the   historian   of   a  common  humanity,  the  teacher  of  abstract 
political  wisdom."     He  is  fond  of   tracing  events  back  to  their 
cnuses,  and  showing  their  probable  results,  and  is  the  great  philo- 
sophic historian.     Macaulay  greatly  admired  him,  and  called  the 
seventh  book  of  Thucydides  the  model  volume  of  history.     His 
accounts  abound  in  speeches  made  by  the  principal  characters,  and 
he  fills  their  mouths  with  his  own  grand  thoughts  and  words.     His 
history  extends  to  the  twenty-first  year  of  the  war,  and  the  last  or 
eighth  book  bears  marks  of  having  been  left  unfinished. 

(b)  The  Greeks  were  the  natural  descendants  of  the  heroes  of 
Homer,  and  it  was  no  common  blood  that  flowed  in  their  veins. 
They  inherited  a  grand   physical   nature,   and  in  the  camp  and 
gymnasia  cultivated  every  faculty  of  body  and  mind.     They  en- 
joyed a  wonderful  climate,  and  the  education  of  grand  and  beauti- 
ful scenery.     They  were  thoroughly  religious  in  their  belief  and 
disposition  to  worship,  and  their  noblest  faculties  were  always  open 
to  grand  inspirations.     Every  mountain,  valley,  and  river  was  the 
home  of  a  god,  and  they  believed  that  their  deities  were  always 
interested  in  human  affairs. 

These  causes  combined  to  make  them  a  people  of  marked  mental 
activity.  They  had  an  intense  love  of  the  beautiful,  the  creative 
faculty  was  largely  developed,  they  had  a  universal  desire  to  know 
the  reason  and  origin  of  things,  and  these  forces  directed  that  mental 
activity  to  literary  pursuits.  Their  poets  and  philosophers  were 
sure  of  an  intelligent,  appreciative  audience,  and  the  rewards  of 


230          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

literary  success  were  sure  and  abundant.  Besides  all  this,  they  were 
blessed  with  political  freedom,  and  in  that  atmosphere  the  mind 
of  man  has  always  done  its  grandest  work.  But  of  all  the  external 
influences  that  gave  inspiration  and  character  to  their  literature, 
the  great  Annual  Games  were  the  most  important.  Here  were 
gathered  the  great  historians  and  orators,  poets  and  philosophers ; 
and  here,  in  the  presence  of  the  most  cultivated  audiences  of  the 
world,  they  gave  their  literary  productions. 

(C)  Pindar  was  the  lyrist  of  Greece  and  of  the  world.  Born 
three  centuries  after  Homer,  he  shares  with  him  the  highest  place 
of  honor.  He  was  a  Theban,  born  of  wealthy  family,  and  early  and 
carefully  instructed  in  poetry  and  versification.  He  contended  for 
years  at  the  games  before  he  won  the  chief  prizes.  He  was  fortu- 
nate in  living  in  the  golden  period  of  Greek  history,  and  having 
the  inspiration  of  great  deeds  and  men.  He  travelled  and  lived 
for  years  in  the  famous  western  colonies  of  Sicily  and  > 
Graeca,  and  when  he  died  at  eighty  years  of  age,  he  was  honored 
throughout  Greece..  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  and  we  possess 
forty-four  of  his  poems  entire,  and  the  fragments  of  many  others. 
His  great  themes  were  freedom,  national  glory,  and  the  worth  of 
man  and  manliness.  He  had  a  clear,  intense  faith  in  a  future 
state  of  rewards  and  punishments.  His  poems  were  written  in  the 
Doric  dialect.  He  was  a  perfect  master  of  versification,  and  origi- 
nated many  new  and  beautiful  forms  of  verse  that  have  been  used 
ever  since  as  models.  His  style  is  marked  by  beautiful  imagery, 
fine  description,  abundant  local  allusions,  great  power  of  condensed 
expression,  and  many  wise  and  brilliant  sayings.  He  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  of  Greek  authors  to  translate  so  as  to  preserve  the 
peculiarities  of  the  original.  He  is  but  little  read,  and  we  find  it 
difficult  to  appreciate  why  this  elegiac  and  lyric  poetry  were  so 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Greeks.  But  this  is  because  we  cannot 
reproduce  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  sung.  They 
were  written  to  be  read  or  sung  at  the  great  games,  or  on  the  field 
of  victory,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  most  enthusiastic  people. 
These  poems  abound  in  allusions  to  places  and  men,  and  to  the 
beautiful  religious  traditions  of  the  Greeks.  Pindar  generally 
selected  some  heroic  legend  connected  with  the  city  and  ancestry 
of  the  victor  at  the  games,  and  wove  this,  with  his  success,  into  a 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PARAGRAPH.  231 

beautiful  poem.  We  cannot  supply  the  music,  the  scenic  acces- 
sories, the  brilliant  audience,  the  pride,  the  joy,  and  hence  we  can- 
not appreciate  the  beauty  and  glory  of  this  poetry. 

44.  —  (Section  31)  —  Point  out  the  subordinating  expres- 
sions of  some  of  the  paragraphs  of  Appendix  A. 

45.  —  (Section   32) — He  write  the  paragraph  from  Macau- 
lay  on  page  57,  making  each  assertion  a  separate  sentence. 
Note  any  loss  of  unity.     Combine  these  assertions  differ- 
ently and  note  the  loss  of  meaning. 

46.  —  (Section    32)  —  Examine  and  criticise  the  punctua- 
tion of  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A. 

47.  —  (Sections  35-36)  —  Examine  some  of  the  more  formal 
paragraphs  in  Appendix  A,  and  classify  them  as  deductive 
or  inductive. 

48.  _  (Sections  35-37)  —  Treat  deductively  some  of  the 
topic-statements  under  Assignment  28  above.     Treat  some  of 
the  same  sentences  as  conclusions  to  be  reached  by  the  in- 
ductive process. 

49.  — (Section  39)  —  Find  three  paragraphs  of  definition 
in  a  magazine  article  or  a  scientific  treatise. 

50.  —  (Section  39)  —  Define,  in  a  paragraph,  one  of  the 
following      terms:        1.     Democracy.         2.     Arbitration. 

3.  Chiaro-oscuro.    4.  Voltage.     5.   Parallax.     6.    Moraine. 

51.  —  (Section  40)  —  Find  three   paragraphs  of   specific 
instances  in  a  book,  magazine,  or  newspaper. 

52.  —  (Section  40)  —  Write  a  paragraph  in  explanation  of 
one    of    the    following    terms,    using    specific    instances: 
1.    Genius.      2.    Sphere    of    influence.      3.    Tidal    wave. 

4.  Blank  verse.     5.   Balance  of  trade.     6.  Veto  power. 

53.  —  (Section  41)  —  Find   in   a  magazine  or  newspaper 
three  paragraphs  in  which  illustration  is  used. 


232          ASSIGNMENTS  ON  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

54. —  (Section  41)  — Write  a  paragraph  in  explanation  of 
one  of  the  following  terms,  using  an  illustration,  either  real 
or  invented:  1.  Personal  equation.  2.  Hypnosis.  3.  Mar- 
ginal utility.  4.  Concert  pitch.  5.  Dual  personality. 
6.  Perspective. 

55.  —  (Section  42)  —  Find  in  a  book  or  magazine  three 
paragraphs  in  which  causes  and  effects  are  used. 

56.  —  (Section  42)  —  Develop  one  of  the  topic-statements 
in  Assignment  24  by  the  method  of  cause  and  effect. 

57.  —  (Section  44) — Find  three   paragraphs    of  incident 
in  a  magazine  or  newspaper,  biography  or  history. 

58.  —  (Section  44)  —  Tell  in  one  paragraph  the  best  story 
you  know. 

59.  —  (Section  45)  —  Find  in  a  work  of  fiction  three  good 
paragraphs  of  description. 

60.  —  (Section  45)  —  Describe,  in  one  paragraph,  the  house, 
the  room,  the  tree,  the  picture,  the  valley,  the  mountain,  or 
the  street  that  you  remember  most  vividly. 

61.  —  (Section  46)—  Find   in  a  history,  or  a  work  of  fic- 
tion, three  good  portrait  sketches. 

62.  —  (Section  46)  —  Select  from  the  pictures  in  this  book 
the  face  which  most  impresses  you,  and  describe  it  in   a 
paragraph. 

63.  —  (Section  47) —  Find  in  works  of  biography,  history, 
or  fiction  three  good  character  sketches. 

64.  —  (Section  47)  —  Write  a  sketch  of  the  most  interest- 
ing character  that  you  have  met. 

65.  —  (Section  SO)  —  Examine  the  introductory  and  con- 
cluding paragraphs  of  three  articles  in   recent   magazines, 
(such  as  Harper's,  Scribner's,  the  Century,  the  Atlantic,  the 
North  American  Review,  the  Nation,  the  Nineteenth  Century, 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION.  233 

the  Contemporary  Review,  the  Fortnightly),  and  report  upon 
them.  What  method  of  introduction  has  the  writer  used 
in  each  case  ?  What  does  the  reader  learn  from  the  open- 
ing paragraph  ?  What  ideas  are  found  in  the  concluding 
paragraphs  ? 

66.  —  (Section  SO) — Examine  in  the  same  way  the  intro- 
ductory and  concluding  paragraphs  of  a  scientific  treatise, 
of  an  oration,  of  a  book  review. 

67.  —  (Section  51)  —  Make  a  study  of  the  transitional  and 
directive  paragraphs  of  a  magazine  article,  of  a  history,  of 
one  of  Stevenson's  essays. 

68.  —  (Section  52) — Find  the  amplifying   paragraphs   in 
one  of  Macaulay's  essays,  and  point  out  in  each  case  the 
thought  which  is  amplified  and  the  reason  for  amplifying  it. 


B.    THE    WHOLE    COMPOSITION. 

Description. 

1.  —  (Section  56)  —  What  is  the  purpose  of  each  of  the 
following  descriptions  ? 

(a)  The  strength  of  these  principal  fa9ades  [of  the  New  York 
Library]  resides  in  the  simple,  clear,  and  thoroughly  monumental 
articulation  of  their  parts.  The  central  motive  on  the  Fifth  Avenue 
side,  the  triple-arched  portico,  has  a  just  degree  of  projection,  and 
the  pillared  section  on  either  side,  with  its  windows,  is  so  designed 
as  to  line  and  mass  that,  while  sufficiently  subordinated  to  the 
portico  aforesaid,  it  is  also  sufficiently  emphasized  for  its  own  sake. 
So,  likewise,  the  corners  have  their  proper  accents,  but  do  not  un- 
duly assert  them  selves.  The  relation  of  the  length  of  the  building 
to  its  height  is  admirably  fixed.  It  might  be  called  a  long,  low 
edifice,  but  the  attics,  looming  up  above  the  outer  roof  line,  provide 
the  needed  corrective.  Outside  the  library,  as  within  it,  a  grave 
dignity  rules,  ornament  being  sparsely  used  and  the  little  of  it 
that  is  introduced  being  handled  with  severe  taste. 


234  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

(b)  Some  time  since  I  happened  to  be  at  Leeds,  and  having 
been  obliged  to  stay  all  night,  I  ordered  that  I  should  be  called  up 
early  in  the  morning.  I  was  called  up,  and  found  it  moonlight 
and  starlight,  and  it  was  a  morning  so  cold  that  the  teeth  of  a 
strong,  athletic  man  would  chatter  in  his  head.  I  drove  in  my 
gig  through  the  streets  of  Leeds,  and  I  met  nobody  but  two  or 
three  watchmen.  The  shops  were  closed,  and  the  windows  dark  ; 
I  saw  nothing  but  the  glimmerings  of  the  watchmen's  lanterns; 
all  was  still,  save  the  sound  of  the  watchmen's  feet  and  my  gig.  I 
arrived  in  the  suburbs ;  I  heard  a  dismal  sound  —  it  fell  like  the 
knell  of  death  on  my  ear.  It  was  the  factory  bell  ringing :  the 
streets  were  instantly  crowded.  There  w?re  no  strong  hale  men, 
nor  any  lights.  The  parents  were  in  bed,  but  their  children  had 
risen,  and  were  trudging  through  the  cold  to  the  factories.  I 
spoke  to  one  who,  with  bread  in  his  mouth,  was  hurrying  forward, 
for  fear  of  being  fined.  I  asked  him  where  he  was  going?  He 
said  to  the  mill.  I  asked  him  if  he  had  said  his  prayers?  He 
answered,  No,  he  had  no  time  —  and  then  he  ran  on.  I  pursued 
my  journey ;  and  I  saw  the  sheep  in  the  pastures,  and  the  cattle 
resting,  for  they  had  not  risen  to  feed,  much  less  to  work.  There 
was  no  need  of  a  law  to  protect  them ;  they  are  vested  property. 
It  were  better  if  British  infants  were  the  vested  property  of  the 
factory  master;  then  perhaps  he  might  find  an  interest  in  using 
them  kindly.  In  an  hour  I  met  three  able  men  going  to  their 
employment.  They  were  weavers,  and  did  not  need  to  go  so 
early  as  the  factory  children.  But  still  the  sun  had  not  risen, 
nor  did  I  hear  the  cattle  lowing,  or  the  herds  bleating.  I  went 
on,  and  in  a  little  while  I  heard  the  birds  singing,  and  then  the 
cattle  began  to  graze.  Then  I  met  the  agricultural  laborers,  with 
their  implements  gracing  their  brawny  shoulders  and  athletic 
frames.  They  were  ruddy,  healthy,  and  strong.  Aye !  aye !  said 
I,  this  looks  like  England.  They  were  not  boys,  nor  dwarfs,  but 
men  —  freemen.  Their  offspring  was  not  immured  in  a  hellish 
Bastille  ;  but  either  not  risen,  or  else  gambolling  in  the  fields.  In 
another  hour  I  met  a  dairymaid,  with  her  milk-pail;  it  seemed 
natural.  I  felt  myself  in  a  land  where  all  might  be  happiness 
and  liberty;  but  when  I  turned  my  recollection  to  what  I  had 
seen  at  Leeds  —  when,  good  God  !  I  reflected  that  the  poor,  miser- 
able, decrepit  beings  had  been  working  there,  in  an  overheated 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION.  235 

atmosphere,  for  full  three  hours,  by  gaslight  and  by  starlight, 
my  heart  sickened  within  me.  I  asked  myself  if  Christianity,  if 
humanity,  if  liberty,  required  this  sacrifice?  and  I  resolved  that 
morning  to  do  more  for  the  factory  child  than  I  had  yet  done. 

—  Oastler. 

(C)  The  old-fashioned  low  wainscoting  went  round  the  rooms 
and  up  the  staircase  with  carved  balusters  and  shadowy  angles, 
landing  halfway  up  at  a  broad  window,  with  a  swallow's  nest  below 
the  sill,  and  the  blossom  of  an  old  pear  tree  showing  across  it  in 
late  April,  against  the  blue,  below  which  the  perfumed  juice  of 
fallen  fruit  in  autumn  was  so  fresh.  At  the  next  turning  came 
the  closet  which  held  on  its  deep  shelves  the  best  china.  Little 
angel  faces  and  reedy  flutings  stood  out  round  the  fireplace  of  the 
children's  room.  And  on  the  top  of  the  house,  above  the  large 
attic,  where  the  white  mice  ran  in  the  twilight —  an  infinite,  un- 
explored wonderland  of  childish  treasures,  glass  beads,  empty 
scent-bottles  still  sweet,  thrum  of  colored  silks,  among  its  lumber 
—  a  flat  space  of  roof,  railed  round,  gave  a  view  of  the  neighboring 
steeples;  for  the  house,  as  I  said,  stood  near  a  great  city,  which 
sent  up  heavenwards,  over  the  twisting  weather-vanes,  not 
seldom,  its  beds  of  rolling  cloud  and  smoke,  touched  with  storm  or 
sunshine.  But  the  child  of  whom  I  am  writing  did  not  hate  the  fog, 
because  of  the  crimson  lights  which  fell  from  it  sometimes  upon 
the  chimneys,  and  the  whites  which  gleamed  through  its  openings, 
on  summer  mornings,  on  turret  or  pavement.  For  it  is  false  to 
suppose  that  a  child's  sense  of  beauty  is  dependent  on  any  choice- 
ness,  or  special  fineness,  in  the  objects  which  present  themselves 
to  it,  though  this  indeed  comes  to  be  the  rule  with  most  of  us 
in  later  life ;  earlier,  in  some  degree,  we  see  inwardly ;  and  the 
child  finds  for  itself,  and  with  unstinted  delight,  a  difference  for 
the  sense,  in  those  whites  and  reds  through  the  smoke  on  very  homely 
buildings,  and  in  the  gold  of  the  dandelions  at  the  road-side,  just 
beyond  the  houses,  where  not  a  handful  of  earth  is  virgin  and  un- 
touched, in  the  lack  of  better  ministries  to  its  desire  of  beauty. 

—  Pater:  The  Child  in  the  House. 

2.  —  (Section  57)  —  Discover  the  point  of  view  in  each  of 
the  following  selections.  If  the  point  of  view  shifts,  trace 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

the  path   which   it  pursues,   and   determine   whether   the 
writer  has  given  due  warning  of  each  change. 

(C,)  The  first  point  one  would  naturally  visit  in  Samarkand  is 
the  famous  Gur  Ameer,  or  tomb  of  Tamerlane,  which  stands  in  a 
pretty  little  park  on  the  edge  of  the  Russian  settlement.  A  native 
policeman  receives  you  at  the  gate  and  conducts  you  through  the 
grounds,  giving  you  temporarily  into  the  hands  of  a  molla,  or 
priest,  in  the  tomb  itself.  There  are  five  of  these  mollas  who  have 
charge  of  the  tomb  and  are  paid  a  certain  sum  per  annum  by  the 
government.  You  pass  a  dilapidated  archway  —  covered  in  part  by 
beautiful  tiles  —  lined  with  beggars,  priestly  or  otherwise,  and  the 
tomb  of  the  great  conqueror  stands  before  you.  It  is  built  of 
small,  burnt  bricks  and  has  very  massive  walls.  Like  the  other 
historic  remains  of  Samarkand,  it  is  quite  in  the  Persian  style  of 
architecture.  The  apex  of  the  dome  is  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  from  the  ground.  As  I  walked  along  the  neatly  gravelled 
paths,  under  beautiful  shade-trees  covered  with  sweet-smelling 
blossoms,  and  filled  with  pretty  song-birds,  the  bright  sun  gayly  il- 
luminating the  enamelled  surface  of  the  tomb,  it  was  difficult  to 
realize  that  so  famous  and  stern  a  warrior  lay  buried  below  one's 
feet.  The  dome,  whose  outline  is  very  graceful,  is  spherical,  and 
its  surface  is  fluted  or  ridged,  but  its  top  has  lost  all  its  glazed 
bricks  and  has  been  restored  in  plaster  by  the  Russians.  This 
white  plaster  is,  of  course,  fatal  to  a  fine  general  effect,  and  you 
accept  its  presence  only  as  a  cheap  method  of  preserving  the  re- 
mainder of  the  work  from  destruction. 

—  Frank  Vincent :  Samarkand  and  Bokhara. 

(1))  We  have  returned  from  visiting  the  glacier  of  Montanvert, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  the  Sea  of  Ice,  a  scene  in  truth  of  dizzying  won- 
der. The  path  that  winds  to  it  along  the  side  of  a  mountain,  now 
clothed  with  pines,  now  intersected  with  snowy  hollows,  is  wide 
and  steep.  The  cabin  of  Montanvert  is  three  leagues  from  Cha- 
mouni,  half  of  which  distance  is  performed  on  mules,  not  so  sure- 
footed but  that  on  the  first  day  the  one  which  I  rode  fell  in  what 
the  guides  call  a  mauvais  pas,  so  that  I  narrowly  escaped  being  pre- 
cipitated down  the  mountain.  We  passed  over  a  hollow  covered 
with  snow,  down  which  vast  stones  are  accustomed  to  roll.  One 
had  fallen  the  preceding  day,  a  little  after  we  had  returned ;  our 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION.  237 

guides  desired  us  to  pass  quickly,  for  it  is  said  that  sometimes  the 
least  sound  will  accelerate  their  descent.  We  arived  at  Moutan- 
vert,  however,  safe. 

On  all  sides  precipitous  mountains,  the  abodes  of  unrelenting 
frost,  surround  this  vale :  their  sides  are  banked  up  with  ice  and 
snow,  broken,  heaped  high,  and  exhibiting  terrific  chasms.  The 
summits  are  sharp  and  naked  pinnacles,  whose  overhanging  steep- 
ness will  not  even  permit  snow  to  rest  upon  them.  Lines  of  daz- 
zling ice  occupy  here  and  there  their  perpendicular  rifts,  and 
shine  through  the  driving  vapors  with  inexpressible  brilliance; 
they  pierce  the  clouds,  like  things  not  belonging  to  this  earth. 
The  vale  itself  is  filled  with  a  mass  of  undulating  ice,  and  has  an 
ascent  sufficiently  gradual  even  to  the  remotest  abysses  of  these 
horrible  deserts.  It  is  only  half  a  league  (about  two  miles)  in 
breadth,  and  seems  much  less.  It  exhibits  an  appearance  as  if 
frost  had  suddenly  bound  up  the  waves  and  whirlpools  of  a  mighty 
torrent.  We  walked  some  distance  upon  its  surface.  The  waves 
are  elevated  about  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  from  the  surface  of  the 
mass,  which  is  intersected  by  long  gaps  of  unfathomable  depths, 
the  ice  of  whose  sides  is  more  beautifully  azure  than  the  sky.  In 
these  regions  everything  changes,  and  is  in  motion.  This  vast 
mass  of  ice  has  one  general  progress,  which  ceases  neither 
day  nor  night;  it  breaks  and  bursts  forever:  some  undulations 
sink  while  others  rise ;  it  is  never  the  same.  The  echo  of  rocks, 
or  of  the  ice  and  snow  which  fall  from  their  overhanging  preci- 
pices, or  roll  from  their  aerial  summits,  scarcely  ceases  for  one 
moment.  One  would  think  that  Mont  Blanc,  like  the  god  of  the 
Stoics,  was  a  vast  animal,  and  that  the  frozen  blood  forever  cir- 
culated through  his  stony  veins.  —  Shelley :  Letters. 

3.  —  (Sectiojis  58-60)  —  Analyze  the  following  descrip- 
tions, and  make  an  outline  of  each  which  will  show  the 
sequence  and  grouping  of  the  details  :  — 

(a)  Up  to  about  a  quarter-past  five  o'clock  the  darkness  is 
complete ;  but  about  that  time  a  few  cries  of  birds  begin  to  break 
the  silence  of  night,  perhaps  indicating  that  signs  of  dawn  are 
perceptible  in  the  eastern  horizon.  A  little  later  the  melancholy 
voices  of  the  goatsuckers  are  heard,  varied  croakings  of  frogs,  the 
plaintive  whistle  of  mountain  thrushes,  and  strange  cries  of  birds 


238  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

or  mammals  peculiar  to  each  locality.  About  half-past  five  the 
first  glimmer  of  light  becomes  perceptible;  it  slowly  becomes 
lighter,  and  then  increases  so  rapidly  that  at  about  a  quarter  to 
six  it  seems  full  daylight.  For  the  next  quarter  of  an  hour  this 
changes  very  little  in  character;  when,  suddenly,  the  sun's  rim 
appears  above  the  horizon,  decking  the  dew-laden  foliage  with 
glittering  gems,  sending  gleams  of  golden  light  far  into  the  woods, 
and  waking  up  all  nature  to  life  and  activity.  Birds  chirp  and 
flutter  about,  parrots  scream,  monkeys  chatter,  bees  hum  among 
the  flowers,  and  gorgeous  butterflies  flutter  lazily  along  or  sit  with 
full  expanded  wings  exposed  to  the  warm  and  invigorating  rays. 
The  first  hour  of  morning  in  the  equatorial  regions  possesses  a 
charm  and  a  beauty  that  can  never  be  forgotten.  All  nature 
seems  refreshed  and  strengthened  by  the  coolness  and  moisture 
of  the  past  night,  new  leaves  and  buds  unfold  almost  before  the 
eye,  and  fresh  shoots  may  often  be  observed  to  have  grown  many 
inches  since  the  preceding  day.  The  temperature  is  the  most 
delicious  conceivable.  The  slight  chill  of  early  dawn,  which 
was  itself  agreeable,  is  succeeded  by  an  invigorating  warmth; 
and  the  intense  sunshine  lights  up  the  glorious  vegetation  of 
the  tropics,  and  realizes  all  that  the  magic  art  of  the  painter  or  the 
glowing  words  of  the  poet  have  pictured  as  their  ideals  of  terres- 
trial beauty. 

(b)  Your  first  glimpse  of  a  sink-box  will  not  inspire  you  with 
confidence.  These  boxes  are  constructed  on  the  principle  of  Erics- 
son's monitor,  to  show  as  little  above  the  water  as  possible.  Imag- 
ine a  board  platform,  ten  feet  long  by  six  feet  wide,  with  a  coffin 
let  into  the  centre  until  it  is  flush  with  the  deck,  and  you  will  have 
a  very  correct  notion  of  a  sink-box.  Around  the  edge  of  the  plat- 
form there  is  a  framework,  over  which  canvas  is  stretched,  to  mini- 
mize the  wash  of  the  waves  over  the  floating  structure.  Decoys 
are  placed  in  an  artistic  arrangement,  known  to  your  guide,  on  the 
platform  and  on  the  canvas  outworks,  as  well  as  grouped  on  the 
water,  about  twenty  yards  in  front  of  the  box.  The  sink-box  is 
simply  an  appliance,  which,  by  placing  the  gunner  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  prevents  the  ducks  from  seeing  him  until  the 
last  moment.  Lying  flat  on  your  back  in  the  box,  you  are  very 
effectually  hidden  from  a  low-flying  bird,  until  it  arrives  in  your 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION.  239 

immediate  vicinity.  The  decoys  by  which  you  are  surrounded 
serve  the  double  purpose  of  attracting  ducks  in  your  direction,  and 
also  of  assisting  to  impress  upon  approaching  birds  the  illusion 
that  there  is  no  gunner  there,  and,  consequently,  no  danger  to  be 
expected. 

(C)  At  the  height  of  two  miles,  the  sun  shines  with  a  fierce 
intensity  unknown  below  where  the  dust  and  the  denser  air  scat- 
ter the  rays  which,  thus  diffused,  lose  their  intensity  while  illu- 
mining every  nook  and  corner  of  our  houses.  At  heights  exceed- 
ing five  miles,  this  diffused  light  is  mostly  gone  and  the  sun  shines 
a  glowing  ball,  sharply  outlined  in  a  sky  of  which  the  blue  is  so 
dark  as  to  approach  blackness.  At  the  outer  limits  of  the  atmos- 
phere, the  sun  would  appear  a  brilliant  star  of  massive  size  among 
other  stars;  and  if  one  stepped  from  its  burning  rays  into  shadow 
he  would  enter  Egyptian  darkness.  At  the  height  of  a  mile  and 
a  half,  we  found  it  necessary  to  shelter  our  faces  to  prevent  sun- 
burn, although  the  air  around  us  was  but  little  warmer  than  that 
of  the  previous  night,  being  about  forty-five  degrees.  As  the  after- 
noon wore  on  and  the  balloon  began  to  cool  and  sink,  we  were 
obliged  to  throw  out  much  sand,  casting  it  away  a  scoopful  at  a 
time,  and  just  after  sunset,  it  was  even  necessary  to  empty  two  or 
three  bags  at  once.  —  H.  H.  Clayton :  Atlantic,  March,  1908. 

(d)  Just  under  our  windows  —  but  far  under,  for  we  were  in 
the  fourth  story  —  was  a  wide  stone  terrace,  old,  moss-grown, 
balustraded  with  marble,  from  which  you  descended  by  two  curv- 
ing flights  of  marble  steps  into  the  garden.  There,  in  the  early 
March  weather,  which  succeeded  a  wind-storm  of  three  days,  the 
sun  fell  like  a  shining  silence,  amidst  which  the  bent  figure  of  an 
old  gardener  stirred,  noiselessly  turning  up  the  earth.  In  the  ut- 
most distance  the  snow-covered  Apennines  glistened  against  a 
milky  white  sky  growing  pale-blue  above ;  the  nearer  hills  were 
purplish ;  nearer  yet  were  green  fields,  gray  olive  orchards,  red 
ploughed  land,  and  black  cypress-clumps  about  the  villas  with 
which  the  whole  prospect  was  thickly  sown.  Then  the  city  houses 
outside  the  wall  began,  and  then  came  the  beautiful  red  brick  city 
wall,  wandering  wide  over  the  levels  and  heights  and  hollows,  and 
within  it  that  sunny  silence  of  a  garden.  While  I  once  stood  at 
the  open  window  looking,  brimful  of  content,  tingling  with  it,  a 


240  ASSIGNMENTS    y.Y   DESCRIPTION. 

bugler  came  up  the  road  without  the  wall,  and  gayly,  bravely, 
sounded  a  gallant  fanfare,  purely,  as  it  seemed,  for  love  of  it  and 
pleasure  in  it. —  Howells  :  Tuscan  Cities. 

(e)  Afar,  and  marvellously  clear  cut  in  their  hundred  miles  of 
distance,  loomed  a  range  of  lofty  mountains;  the  fierce  wind  was 
blowing  out  a  glorious  white  mist  which  veiled  with  falling  and 
ascending  draperies  of  vapor  the  greater  bulk  of  the  tawny  mass 
on  the  right;  but  so  marvellously  brilliant  was  the  atmosphere 
through  which  the  gale  was  rushing,  the  sense  of  distance  vanished. 
The  huge  steep  lifting  and  disappearing  in  its  splendor  of  mist, 
drew  close;  I  saw  the  curves  of  the  cloofs,  every  wrinkle  of  broken 
rock,  and  patches  of  bush,  though  it  was  all  miles  off  and  high  in 
air.     The  white  houses  spread  like  toys  of  ivory  to  the  base,  and 
the  wide  waters  of  the  bay,  full  of  the  gleams  of  the  brushing  west- 
erly air,  and  foaming  under  the  shrieking  lash  of  the  gale  where 
the  breast  of  blue  rounded  to  the  town,  were  framed  by  a  spar- 
kling, snow-white  beach,  past  which  the  swelling  country  showed  in 
reds  and  greens  till  the  sight  died  upon  the  phantom  blue  of  dis- 
tant heights.  — W.  C.  Russell :  A  Three-branded  Yarn. 

(f )  They  had  now  come  to  the  moor's  edge,  and  were  looking 
down  on  the  amphitheatre  which  formed  the  domain  of  Ravenshoe. 
Far  and  wide  the  tranquil  sea,  vast,  dim,  and  gray,  flooded  bay 
and  headland,  cave  and  islet.     Beneath  their  feet  slept  the  winter 
woodlands ;  from  whose  brown  bosom  rose  the  old  house,  many- 
gabled,  throwing  aloft  from  its  chimneys  hospitable  columns  of 
smoke,  which  hung  in  the  still  autumn  air,  and  made  a  hazy  cloud 
on  the  hillside.     Everything  was  so  quiet  that  they  could  hear  the 
gentle  whisper  of  the  ground-swell,  and  the  voices  of  the  children 
at  play  upon  the  beach,  and  the  dogs  barking  in  the  kennels. 

—  Kingsley :  Ravenshoe,  chap.  xi. 

4.—  (Sections  58-60)—  Mr.  W.  N.  Lettsom,  a  Shake- 
spearean critic,  says  of  the  following  passage :  "  It  is  pre- 
posterous to  speak  of  the  facts  of  a  chariot  (such  as  the 
wagon-spokes  and  cover)  before  mentioning  a  chariot  itself." 

Discuss  the  order  of  the  details  in  the  light  of  this 
criticism. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION.  241 

She  comes 

In  shape  no  bigger  than  an  agate-stone 
On  the  fore-finger  of  an  alderman, 
Drawn  with  a  team  of  little  atomies 
Athwart  men's  noses  as  they  lie  asleep ; 
Her  wagon-spokes  made  of  long  spinners'  legs; 
The  cover,  of  the  wings  of  grasshoppers ; 
The  traces,  of  the  smallest  spider's  web ; 
The  collars,  of  the  moonshine's  watery  beams  ; 
Her  whip,  of  cricket's  bone ;  the  lash,  of  film ; 
Her  wagoner,  a  small  gray-coated  gnat, 
Not  half  so  big  as  a  round  little  worm 
Prick'd  from  the  lazy  finger  of  a  maid ; 
Her  chariot  is  au  empty  hazel-nut, 
Made  by  the  joiner  squirrel,  or  old  grub, 
Time  out  of  mind  the  fairies'  coach  makers. 
And  in  this  state  she  gallops  night  by  night 
Through  lovers'  brains,  and  then  they  dream  of  love; 
O'er  courtiers'  knees,  that  dream  on  court'sies  straight; 
O'er  lawyers'  fingers,  who  straight  dream  on  fees. 

—  Romeo  and  Juliet,  I,  iv.     . 

5.  —  (Sections  58-60)  —  Determine  whether  Shakespeare 
followed  the  same  order  in  other  descriptive  passages,  such 
as  the  following:  — 

Come  on,  sir ;  here's  the  place  ;  stand  still.     How  fearful 

And  dizzy  'tis,  to  cast  one's  eyes  so  low  I 

The  crows  and  choughs  that  wing  the  midway  air 

Show  scarce  so  gross  as  beetles :  halfway  down 

Hangs  one  that  gathers  samphire,  dreadful  trade ! 

Methinks  he  seems  no  bigger  than  his  head : 

The  fishermen,  that  walk  upon  the  beach, 

Appear  like  mice  ;  and  yond  tall  anchoring  bark, 

Diminish'd  to  her  cock ;  her  cock,  a  buoy 

Almost  too  small  for  sight :  the  murmuring  surge, 

That  on  the  unnumber'd  idle  pebbles  chafes, 

Cannot  be  heard  so  high.     I'll  look  no  more ; 

Lest  my  brain  turn,  and  the  deficient  sight 

Topple  down  headlong.  — King  Lear,  IV,  vi. 


242  ASSIGN  MK.\TS  IN  DESCRIPTION. 

6.  —  (Section  60)  —  Find  in  a  recent  novel  or  short  story 
three  good  specimens  of  description  in  which  the  funda- 
mental image  is  used. 

7.  —  (Section  60)  —  Discover  a  fundamental  image  which 
may  be  used  effectively  in  describing  one  of  the  following 
objects.    Write  the  description.     1.  The  full  moon.     2.  An 
elm  tree.     3.  An  old-fashioned  garment.     4.  The  interior  of 
a  theatre  or  other  public  building.      5.  A  high-jumper  in 
mid-air.     6.  An  extinct  animal. 

8.  —  (Section  61)  —  Is  the  scene  described  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraph  made  clear  to  you  in  all  particulars  ?    If  not, 
point  out  wherein  it  is  obscure,  and  why.     Rewrite  it  in  ac- 
cordance with  your  own  ideas. 

The  night  that  followed  was  breathless  and  beautiful.  In  the 
southeast,  under  the  moon,  the  water  stretched  in  a  stainless  field 
of  light,  flashing  but  still  as  a  sheet  of  looking-glass ;  our  sails 
glowed  blandly  like  starlight  itself  as  they  rose  one  above  another 
into  the  whitened  gloom  in  whose  clear  profound  many  meteors 
were  darting,  leaving  a  smoke  of  spangles  for  all  the  world  like 
sky-rockets  under  the  large,  trembling  stars.  Lovely  they  were  ; 
but  for  the  moon  I  think  many  had  studded  the  water  with  points 
of  light  to  ride  and  widen  upon  the  black  and  noiseless  lift  of 
swell,  thick  and  sluggish  as  though  it  were  oil  that  ran,  and 
scarcely  putting  three  moons'  breadth  of  motion  into  our  mast- 
heads, though  it  sweetened  the  air  with  the  rain  of  dew  it  softly 
beat  out  of  the  canvas.  —  W.  C.  Russell :  A  Three-stranded  Yarn. 

9.  —  (Section  62)  —  Find  three  specimens  of  effective  de- 
scription in  some  piece  of  fiction  which  you  are  reading 
for  the  first  time.     Make  a  concise  statement  of  the  reason 
why  each  selection  is  judged  to  be  good. 

10. —  (Section  62) — Find  three  specimens  of  poetical 
description,  and  give  reasons  for  their  effectiveness. 

11.  —  (Section  62)  —  Find  three  specimens  of  poetry  or 
prose,  describing  (a)  flowers,  or  (b)  fruits,  or  (c)  trees,  or 


ASSIGNMENTS   IN  DESCRIPTION.  243 

(d)  the  appearance  of  the  sea,  or  (e)  clouds,  or  (/)  faces, 
or  (g)  the  sky,  or  (h)  the  sun,  or  (i)  the  moon,  or  (j)  birds, 
or  (k)  mountains,  or  (7)  rivers,  or  (m)  rain,  or  (n)  snow,  or 
(o)  fire. 

12.  —  (Section  62)  — Find  specimens  of  poetry  or  prose, 
describing  (a)  the  sound  of  the  human  voice,  or  (b)  the  song 
of  birds,  or  (c)  the  cries  of  animals,  or  (d)  the  sound  of 
waves  on  the  shore,  or  (e)  the  sound  of  the  wind,  or  (/)  the 
sound  of  a  waterfall,  or  (g)  the  sound  of  music,  or  (h)  the 
sounds  made  by  insects. 

13. —  (Section  62) — Describe  briefly  and  as  vividly  as 
you  can,  (a)  the  appearance  of  the  surface  of  a  lake  when  a 
fine  rain  is  falling,  (6)  a  spray  of  ivy  against  a  wall,  (c)  the 
face  of  an  old  man,  (d)  a  statue,  (e)  an  autumn  leaf,  (/)  a 
poplar  tree  when  the  wind  is  blowing,  (g)  frost  on  the  side- 
walk, (h)  a  lichen,  (*)  a  Persian  rug,  (J)  a  ripe  grape,  (k)  a 
soap-bubble  the  instant  before  it  bursts,  (I)  a  landscape 
seen  through  the  heated  air  rising  from  a  fire,  (m)  a  flock 
of  wild  geese  flying  south,  (n)  a  squirrel  clinging  to  a  tree. 
The  description  may  be  written  as  if  it  were  part  of  a 
narrative. 

14.  —  (Section  62)  —  Describe  briefly  and  as  vividly  as  you 
can,  (a)  the  cry  of  the  tree-toads,  (b)  the  call  of  the  quail, 
(c)  the  chirp  of  the  katydid,  (d)  the  lowing  of  a  cow,  (e) 
the  shriek  of  a  parrot,  (/)  the  hooting  of  an  owl,  (g)  the 
song  of  the  meadow-lark,  (h)  the  song  of  the  mocking-bird, 
(i)  the  sound  of  a  fire-bell,  (J)  the  sound  of  clocks  striking 
one  at  night  in  a  city,  (A:)  the  sound  of  a  threshing-machine 
at  full  speed,  (j)  the  sound  of  rain  on  the  roof,  (m)  the  sound 
of  wind  in  the  telegraph  wires,  (n)  the  sound  of  wind  blow- 
ing through  the  keyhole,  (o)  the  sound  of  the  deepest  tones 
of  an  organ,  (p)  the  sound  of  an  automobile  passing  rapidly. 

The  description  may  be  written  as  if  it  were  part  of  a 
narrative. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  DESCRIPTION. 


15. —  (Section  62}—  (a)  Write  a  brief  description  of  a 
telephone  transmitter  as  it  might  appear  to  a  man  who  was 
greatly  exasperated  by  its  failure  to  work  in  an  emergency. 

(b)  Describe  some  natural  object  as  seen  first  at  a  time 
of  depression,  disappointment,  or  grief,  then  as  it  is  seen  in 
a  joyful  mood. 

(c)  Describe  the  scene  in  Olde's  Before  Sunrise  (Figure  1) 


FIGURE  1. 

as  it  would  appear  to  some  one  who,  emerging  from  the  edge 
of  a  neighboring  wood,  came  upon  it  unexpectedly. 

(d)  Compare  the  two  representations  of  an  ocean  wave  in 
Hokusai's  The  Wave,  and  Aivazowski's  The  Storm  (Figures 
2  and  3). 

(e)  Describe  (1)  the  appearance  of  a  recitation  room  as 


246 


A*Sl<;\MK.\rS 


NARRATION. 


seen  for  an  instant  through  a  partly  opened  door,  or  (2)  the 
appearance  of  the  spectators  at  a  foot-ball  game  at  the  mo- 
ment of  greatest  suspense. 

(0 


Describe  the  in- 
terior of  a  reading 
room  in  the  evening. 

(g)  Describe  the 
tower  of  a  church  as 
it  appears  when  the 
observer  approaches  it 
from  a  distance. 

(h)  Describe  a  land- 
scape as  it  would  ap- 
pear (1)  if  it  were 
gradually  disclosed  to 
the  observer  by  the 
dispersion  of  a  dense 
fog,  or  (2)  if  one  were 
looking  over  the  shoul- 
der of  a  painter  who 
was  making  a  rapid 
sketch  of  it  in  colors,  or  (3)  if  one  were  watching  the  de- 
velopment of  a  negative,  or  (4)  if  one  were  observing  the 
cleaning  of  an  old,  dirt-colored  oil  painting  from  which  the 
outlines  of  the  valley  emerged  bit  by  bit. 

(i)  Portray  the  appearance  of  a  recitation  room  at  the 
instant  when  the  class  is  dismissed.  Write  as  if  describing 
an  instantaneous  photograph  of  the  scene. 

(j)  Describe  the  face  of  The  Laughing  Boy  by  Velasquez 
(Figure  4). 

Narration. 

1.  —  (Sections  66-68)  —  Study  the  following  specimens  of 
simple  narrative.  Note  any  violations  of  unity,  sequence, 
or  climax. 


FIGURE  4. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION.  247 

(a)  If  we  follow  a  paragraph  of  news  matter  or  even  an  adver- 
tisement from  the  time  it  is  written  until  it  is  placed  before  the 
reader,  we  can  get  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  truly  wonderful 
part  that  mechanism  may  play  in  this  industry.  As  fast  as  the 
mind  of  the  reporter  or  editor  frames  a  sentence  it  is  placed  upon 
the  paper  by  the  typewriter,  every  desk  containing  a  machine  by 
which  copy  can  be  finished  far  more  rapidly  than  with  the  pen  or 
pencil  and,  of  course,  far  more  legibly.  The  pneumatic  tube  takes 
sheet  after  sheet  as  revised  by  the  editor  and  places  it  before  the 
foreman  in  the  composing-room  above.  The  battery  of  typeset- 
ting machines  is  provided  with  double  as  well  as  single  magazines 
of  type-formers,  so  that  one  machine  may  not  only  set  the  body 
of  the  paragraph,  but  the  head-lines,  although  a  separate  machine  is 
designed  exclusively  for  headings.  Thus  hand  composition  has 
been  reduced  to  such  a  small  amount  that  an  entire  page  of  eight 
columns,  including  all  the  display  advertising,  may  contain  less 
than  a  half-column  set  by  actual  hand  labor.  When  it  is  stated 
that  each  of  these  motor-driven  typesetters  averages  at  least  6000 
ems  an  hour  compared  with  less  than  5000  ems  —  the  best  record 
in  most  composing-rooms  of  the  larger  American  dailies  —  an 
idea  of  the  time-saving  in  composition  alone  can  be  gained,  but 
machinery  also  enters  largely  into  the  making  of  the  matrix.  As 
fast  as  the  form  is  made  up,  it  is  shoved  on  the  bed  of  an  impres- 
sion-moulder that  is  actuated  by  a  two-and-one-half-horse-power 
motor.  One  movement  of  the  massive  mould-roller  over  the  sheet 
of  papier-mache  placed  on  the  form  stamps  the  type  into  its  soft, 
moist  surface.  As  the  moulder  is  next  to  the  form-tables,  the  steam- 
tables  are  also  in  line  with  the  roll,  so  that  the  form  and  matrix 
are  placed  on  a  table  in  a  few  seconds  to  be  subjected  to  a  steam 
pressure  of  eighty  pounds,  which  partially  removes  the  moisture. 
As  this  treatment  occupies  four  minutes,  enough  tables  are  pro- 
vided to  press  all  of  the  matrices  which  can  be  moulded  in  that 
time.  At  the  end  of  the  steam-tables,  the  circular  matrix-roaster 
revolved  by  a  one-quarter-horse-power  motor  receives  the  matrices 
as  fast  as  removed  from  the  tables.  Its  centrifugal  motion  com- 
pletely dries  the  matrix  in  fifteen  seconds,  with  heat  produced  by 
gas. 

The  matrices  travel  to  the  stereotyping-room  in  the  basement, 
over  a  chute.     While  the  stereotype  is  being  made,  the  plate  is 


248  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

trimmed  by  electrically  driven  tools,  so  that  the  operation  of  the 
casting-boxes,  the  steam-tables,  the  making  up  of  the  forms,  and 
the  transfer  of  the  form-tables  are  the  only  hand  processes  em- 
ployed. A  plate  may  be  locked  on  the  press-bed  in  less  than  eight 
minutes  after  the  form  is  completed,  in  which  time  the  matrix  has 
been  moulded,  pressed,  dried,  sent  to  the  stereotype  department,  and 
cast. 

To  pursue  the  career  of  the  paragraph  we  have  been  following, 
a  stereotype  containing  it  is  fastened  with  the  other  plates  of  the 
paper  on  each  of  a  series  of  four  quadruple  presses  of  the  Hoe  type. 
In  an  hour,  if  these  have  been  running  continuously,  100,000  news- 
papers containing  it  have  not  only  been  printed  and  finished,  but 
taken  from  the  press-room  and  most  of  them  placed  in  wrappers  for 
mulling  or  in  the  hands  of  carriers  for  distribution.  In  other 
words,  an  edition  of  this  size  is  not  only  produced,  but  delivered 
to  the  centre  of  distribution  in  the  time  mentioned.  Passing  over 
the  question  of  the  modern  quadruple  press,  which,  as  the  reader 
knows,  not  only  prints  but  cuts  and  folds,  the  way  in  which  the 
delivery  is  made  is  worth  noting.  Extending  past  the  end  of  each 
press  is  an  endless  conveyer  moving  at  the  rate  of  100  feet  a 
minute.  As  the  papers  fall  upon  the  delivery  board  of  a  press  the 
"fly  boy  "  with  one  motion  of  his  arms  places  them  on  the  conveyer 
as  fast  as  they  accumulate.  To  the  end  of  the  press-room  moves 
the  conveyer,  then  up  a  vertical  conduit  to  the  street  floor,  where 
its  freight  is  removed,  counted,  and  distributed  to  carriers  and 
wagons  as  fast  as  the  papers  emerge  through  the  chute. 

(b)  I  went  down  to  the  shop  and  opened  the  shutters.  There 
was  little  custom  before  breakfast,  so  I  lounged  about  behind  the 
counter,  pulling  open  drawers  of  spices  and  reading  the  labels  on 
bottles  and  jars.  After  all,  I  thought,  there  are  more  disagree- 
able vocations  in  the  world  than  that  of  grocer,  —  bricklaying,  for 
instance.  I  determined  to  do  my  share  of  the  work  faithfully, 
whether  I  liked  it  or  not.  I  was  in  my  nineteenth  year,  and,  at 
the  worst,  would  be  my  own  master  at  twenty-one. 

My  uncle,  finding  that  I  wrote  a  neat  hand  and  was  a  good 
arithmetician,  gradually  initiated  me  into  the  mysteries  of  day- 
book and  ledger.  I  also  assisted  in  waiting  on  the  customers,  and 
in  a  few  days  became  sufficiently  expert  at  sliding  sugar  or 
coffee  out  of  the  scoop,  so  as  to  turn  the  scale  by  the  weight  of  a 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION.  249 

grain  or  single  bean,  settling  the  contents  in  paper  bags,  and  tying 
them  squarely  and  compactly.  My  uncle  was  too  shrewd  a  busi- 
ness man  to  let  me  learn  at  the  expense  of  customers :  I  was  re- 
quired to  cover  the  counter  with  packages  of  various  weights,  the 
contents  of  which  were  afterwards  returned  to  the  appropriate 
bins  or  barrels.  Thus,  while  I  was  working  off  my  awkwardness, 
the  grocery  presented  an  air  of  unusual  patronage  to  its  innocent 
visitors. 

Many  of  our  customers  were  farmers  of  the  vicinity,  who 
brought  their  eggs,  butter,  and  cheese  to  exchange  for  groceries. 
This  was  a  profitable  part  of  the  business,  as  we  gained  both  in 
buying  and  selling.  There  was  a  great  demand  among  these 
people  for  patent  medicines,  which  formed  a  very  important  part 
of  my  uncle's  stock.  He  discovered  in  an  incredibly  short  time 
from  what  neighborhood  a  new  customer  came,  and  immediately 
gave  an  account  of  the  relief  which  somebody,  living  in  an  oppo- 
site direction,  had  derived  from  the  use  of  certain  pills  or  plasters. 

u  Weakness  o'  the  back,  eh  I  "  he  would  say  to  some  melancholy- 
faced  countryman ;  "  our  Balm  of  Gilead's  the  stuff  for  that. 
Only  three  levies  a  bottle;  rub  it  in  with  flannel,  night  and 
mornin'.  Mr.  Hempson  — you  know  him  p'r'aps,  down  on  Poplar 
Neck?  —  was  bent  double  with  the  rheumatiz,  and  two  bottles 
made  him  as  straight  as  I  am.  Better  take  some  of  the  Peruvian 
Preventive,  while  you  are  about  it,  ma'am,  —  keeps  off  chills  and 
fevers.  Deacon  Dingery  sent  all  the  way  down  from  Port  Clinton 
t'other  day  for  some  ;  they  don't  keep  it  there.  Lives  in  a  ma'shy 
place,  right  onto  the  river,  and  they  ha'n't  had  a  chill  in  the  family 
since  they  use  'em.  I  reckon  we've  sold  wheelbarra  loads." 

(c)  One  of  Thomas  Lincoln's  friends  owned  a  ferry-boat  on  the 
Ohio  River.  It  was  nothing  but  a  small  rowboat,  and  would 
carry  only  three  or  four  people  at  a  time.  This  man  wanted  to 
employ  some  one  to  take  care  of  his  boat  and  to  ferry  people  across 
the  river. 

Thomas  Lincoln  was  in  need  of  money;  and  so  he  arranged 
with  his  friend  for  Abraham  to  do  this  work.  The  wages  of  the 
young  man  were  to  be  $2.50  a  week.  But  all  the  money  was  to  be 
his  father's. 

One  day  two  strangers  came  to  the  landing.  They  wanted  to 
take  passage  on  a  steamboat  that  was  coming  down  the  river. 


250  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

The  ferry-boy  signalled  to  the  steamboat  and  it  stopped  in  mid- 
stream. Then  the  boy  rowed  out  with  the  two  passengers,  and 
they  were  taken  on  board. 

Just  as  he  was  turning  towards  the  shore  again,  each  of  the 
strangers  tossed  a  half-dollar  into  his  boat.  He  picked  the  silver 
up  and  looked  at  it.  Ah,  how  rich  he  felt !  He  had  never  had  so 
much  money  at  one  time.  And  he  had  gotten  all  for  a  few 
minutes'  labor ! 

When  winter  came  on,  there  were  fewer  people  who  wanted  to 
cross  the  river.  So,  at  last,  the  ferry-boat  was  tied  up,  and 
Abraham  Lincoln  went  back  to  his  father's  home. 

2.  —  (Sections  66-68)  —  (a)    Having  found  in  a  history, 
biography,  or  work  of  fiction  a  specimen  of  simple  narra- 
tive, transcribe  it  accurately,  and  write  a  criticism  of  it. 

(b)  Write  a  simple  narrative  on  one  of  the  following  sub- 
jects :  1.  Building  a  house  of  cement.  2.  A  high  school 
commencement.  3.  My  first  day  at  college.  4.  Buying  a 
book.  5.  The  chronicle  of  a  restful  summer.  6.  The  antics 
of  a  squirrel  (or  other  animal).  7.  What  happened  at  the 
concert.  8.  A  little  ride  on  the  trolley.  9.  Practising  my 
hobby. 

3.  —  (Section  69)  —  Point  out  the  elements  of  the  narrative 
written  for  the  preceding  assignment. 

4.  —  (Section  71)  —  Find  a  complex  narrative  in  a  current 
magazine  and  analyze  it  into  its  elements. 

5.  —  (Section  72)  —  Find  an  obstacle  or  obstacles  by  means 
of   which  each  of  the  following   simple  narratives  can  be 
turned  into  a  complex  narrative.     Outline  fully  one  of  the 
plots  and  write  the  narrative,  making  such  changes  as  may 
be  necessary  in  the  characters  and  events. 

(a)  With  hurried  steps  I  bent  my  course  in  the  direction  of 
some  lofty  ground ;  1  at  length  found  myself  on  a  high  road,  lead- 
ing over  wide  and  arid  downs;  following  the  road  for  some  miles 
without  seeing  anything  remarkable,  I  supposed  at  length  that  I 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN.  NARRATION.  251 

had  taken  the  wrong  path,  and  wended  on  slowly  and  disconso- 
lately for  some  time,  till,  having  nearly  surmounted  a  steep  hill,  I 
knew  at  once,  from  certain  appearances,  that  I  was  near  the  ob- 
ject of  my  search.  Turning  to  my  right  near  the  brow  of  the  hill, 
I  proceeded  along  a  path  which  brought  me  to  a  causeway  leading 
over  a  deep  ravine,  and  connecting  the  hill  with  another  which 
had  once  formed  part  of  it,  for  the  ravine  was  evidently  the  work 
of  art.  I  passed  over  the  causeway,  and  found  myself  in  a  kind  of 
gateway  which  admitted  me  into  a  square  space  of  many  acres, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  mounds  or  ramparts  of  earth.  Though 
I  had  never  been  in  such  a  place  before,  I  knew  that  I  stood  within 
the  precincts  of  what  had  been  a  Roman  encampment,  and  one 
probably  of  the  largest  size,  for  many  thousand  warriors  might  have 
found  room  to  perform  their  evolutions  in  that  space,  in  which 
corn  was  now  growing,  the  green  ears  waving  in  the  morning 
wind. 

After  I  had  gazed  about  the  space  for  a  time,  standing  in  the 
gateway  formed  by  the  mounds,  I  clambered  up  the  mound  to  the 
left  hand,  and  on  the  top  of  that  mound  I  found  myself  at  a  great 
altitude ;  beneath,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile,  was  a  fair  old  city, 
situated  amongst  verdant  meadows,  watered  with  streams,  and 
from  the  heart  of  that  old  city,  from  amidst  mighty  trees,  I  be- 
held towering  to  the  sky  the  finest  spire  in  the  world. 

After  I  had  looked  from  the  Roman  rampart  for  a  long  time,  I 
hurried  away,  and,  retracing  my  steps  along  the  causeway,  re- 
gained the  road,  and,  passing  over  the  brow  of  the  hill,  descended 
to  the  city  of  the  spire.  —  Borrow :  Lavengro,  chap.  Ixi. 

(b)  We  dropped  anchor  not  far  from  the  mole.  As  we  ex- 
pected every  moment  to  hear  the  evening  gun,  after  which  no  per- 
son is  permitted  to  enter  the  town,  I  was  in  trepidation  lest  I  should 
be  obliged  to  pass  the  night  on  board  the  dirty  Catalan  steamer, 
which,  as  I  had  no  occasion  to  proceed  farther  in  her,  I  was  in 
great  haste  to  quit.  A  boat  now  drew  nigh,  with  two  individuals 
at  the  stern,  one  of  whom,  standing  up,  demanded,  in  an  authori- 
tative voice,  the  name  of  the  vessel,  her  destination  and  cargo. 
Upon  being  answered,  they  came  on  board.  After  some  conversa- 
tion with  the  captain,  they  were  about  to  depart,  when  I  inquired 
whether  I  could  accompany  them  on  shore.  The  person  I  addressed 
was  a  tall  young  man,  with  a  fustian  frock-coat.  He  had  a  long 


252  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

face,  long  nose,  and  wide  mouth,  with  large  restless  eyes.  There 
was  a  grin  on  his  countenance  which  seemed  permanent,  and,  had 
it  not  been  for  his  bronzed  complexion,  I  should  have  declared 
him  to  be  a  cockney,  and  nothing  else.  He  was,  however,  no  such 
thing,  but  what  is  called  a  rock  lizard,  that  is,  a  person  born  at 
Gibraltar  of  English  parents.  Upon  hearing  my  question,  which 
was  in  Spanish,  he  grinned  more  than  ever,  and  inquired,  in  a 
strange  accent,  whether  I  was  a  son  of  Gibraltar.  I  replied  that  I 
had  not  that  honor  but  that  I  was  a  British  subject.  Whereupon 
he  said  that  he  should  make  no  difficulty  in  taking  me  ashore. 
We  entered  the  boat,  which  was  rapidly  rowed  toward  the  land  by 
four  Genoese  sailors.  My  two  companions  chattered  in  their  strange 
Spanish,  he  of  the  fustian  occasionally  turning  his  countenance 
full  upon  me,  the  last  grin  appeared  ever  more  hideous  than  the 
preceding  ones.  We  soon  reached  the  quay,  where  my  name  was 
noted  down  by  a  person  who  demanded  my  passport,  and  I  was  then 
permitted  to  advance.  —  Borrow :  The  Bible  in  Spain,  chap.  li. 

6.  —  (Section  72)  —  Finding  a  good  short  story  in  a  recent 
magazine,  analyze  the  plot  and  determine  the  precise  nature 
of  the  obstacle. 

7.  —  (Sections  74-76)  —  Study  the  beginning,  climax,  and 
conclusion  of  one  of  the  stories  in  Appendix  B. 

8.  —  (Section  77)  —  Selecting  the  story  which  you  like 
best,  examine  the  motives  of  the  characters.    Are  all  of  their 
acts  properly  accounted  for  ? 

9.  —  (Section  78)  —  Study  the  means  of  suspense  in  one 
of  Dickens's  novels.     Is  it  at  any  point  carried  too  far  ? 

10.—  (Section  75)  — Read  Chapter  X  of  James  Lane 
Allen's  Tlie  Choir  Invisible,  and  notice  how  the  action  is 
delayed  in  the  5th  to  the  10th  paragraphs.  Is  the  suspense 
overdone?  What  ideas  are  found  in  these  suspensive 
paragraphs  ?  Make  a  complete  outline  of  the  chapter. 

11.  —  Use  the  following  outline  as  the  basis  of  a  narra- 
tive :  At  a  certain  college  a  competitive  examination  for  a 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION.  253 

valuable  prize  is  soon  to  be  held.  The  hero  of  the  story 
is  anxious  to  win,  for  besides  being  ambitious  for  the  dis- 
tinction he  is  in  great  need  of  money.  By  accident  he 
learns  that  the  examination  questions  are  in  a  desk  in  a 
certain  recitation  room.  He  gains  admission  to  the  room, 
but  as  he  is  about  to  open  the  desk  his  conscience  is 
aroused  in  some  way  (find  a  good,  iinhackneyed,  unsenti- 
mental motive),  and  he  puts  the  temptation  aside.  As  he 
starts  to  leave  the  room,  however,  he  hears  a  key  turn  in 
the  lock,  and  in  an  agony  of  remorse  and  shame  awaits  the 
entrance  of  the  instructor.  (Complete  the  story.) 

12.  —  Use  the  following  outline  as  the  basis  of  a  narra- 
tive :  An  old  farmer  who  has  a  son  at  college  drops  in  upon 
the  latter  unexpectedly.     The  son,  ashamed  of  the  old  gen- 
tleman's uncultivated   speech   and  manners  and   ill-fitting 
clothes,  uses  all  his  ingenuity  to  keep  his  father  in-doors. 
The  father,  however,  is  anxious  to  see  the  buildings  and  the 
classes  and  finally  announces  his  intention  of  calling  upon 
the  President.     The  son  tries  in  vain  to  dissuade  him,  and 
as  a  last  desperate  recourse  assures  him  that  the  President 
is  dangerously  ill.    (Complete  the  story.) 

13.  —  Choosing  one  of  the  following  subjects,  supply  the 
characters,  outline  the  plot,  and  write  the  narrative:  — 

1.  Having  my  own  way,  and  the  results  of  it. 

2.  A  conspiracy  that  failed. 

3.  Locked  in. 

4.  How was  elected  class  president. 

5.  How  the  game  was  won. 

6.  Results  of  a  misunderstanding. 

7.  The  mistake  in  my  record. 

8.  A  delayed  letter. 

9.  The  mystery  of  my  chum. 

10.  Why does  not  elect  any  more  courses  in . 

11.  Trying  to  recover  a  letter  mailed  to  the  wrong  person. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

12.  A  psychological  experiment. 

13.  Keeping  a  secret. 

14.  The  remarkable  invention  of  my  friend . 

15.  A  quarrel  with  the  wrong  man. 

16.  Correcting  a  bad  habit. 

17.  Why was  not  graduated. 

18.  A  fatal  success. 

19.  Why  we  moved. 

20.  Testing  a  superstition. 

14.  —  Choosing  one  of  the  following  skeleton  plots,  sup- 
ply  appropriate   characters  and    incidents   and  write  the 
narrative  :  — 

1.  A  threatened  danger  averted. 

2.  Struggle  to  secure  some  prize.     Success  when  failure 

seems  inevitable. 

3.  Successive  obstacles.     As  fast  as  one  is  removed,  an- 

other takes  its  place. 

4.  Effort  to  conceal  a  fault  or  weakness  brings  it  into 

prominence. 

5.  Unexpected  revelation  of  character  in  an  emergency. 

6.  Extraordinary  exhibition  of  skill,  strength,  etc. 

7.  An  object  attained  after  long  effort  turns  out  to  be  of 

little  worth. 

8.  A  man  in  striving  for  some  desired  object  sacrifices 

a  greater  good. 

9.  Hard  struggle  to  obtain  what  was  all  the  time  in  one's 

possession. 

10.  An  apparently  useless  trait  of  character  becomes  of 

value  in  an  emergency. 

11.  A  single  misstep  spoils  a  long-continued  work. 

15.  —  Write  the   story  outlined   in   the   following   para- 
graph, giving  the  words  used  by  the  parents  and  by  Pas- 
teur, and  one  of  the  letters  written  by  Pasteur,  and  the 
reply  to  it :  — 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION.  255 

On  the  morning  of  the  4th  of  July,  1885,  a  little  boy  on  his  way 
to  school  in  a  village  in  Alsace  was  attacked  and  severely  bitten 
by  a  rabid  dog.  A  physician  cauterized  the  wounds  with  carbolic 
acid  and  advised  the  parents  to  take  the  child  to  Paris,  where,  as 
he  said,  was  the  only  man  who  could  do  anything  for  him  :  he 
lived  in  the  Rue  cTUlm  and  his  name  was  Pasteur.  The  advice 
was  followed,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  of  July  the  mother 
and  child  presented  themselves  at  the  laboratory.  Pasteur,  deeply 
moved  by  the  distress  of  the  parent  and  strong  in  the  confidence 
his  experiments  had  created,  asked  the  advice  of  two  professors  in 
the  School  of  Medicine  who  were  familiar  with  his  investigations. 
Both  approved  of  the  attempt,  and  the  lad  received  his  first  injec- 
tion the  same  day.  On  each  succeeding  day  another  and  more 
virulent  inoculation  was  made  ;  and  as  the  danger,  if  danger  there 
were,  was  thus  daily  increasing,  so  increased  likewise  the  anxiety  of 
Pasteur.  His  days  were  agitated,  his  nights  sleepless,  and  even 
long  after  the  treatment  had  ended  and  the  child  had  returned  to 
his  home,  Pasteur  wrote  to  him  every  week  for  news  of  his  well- 
being. 

16.  —  Transfer  the  scene  of  the  following  story  to  this 
country,  making  such  changes  in  characters,  setting,  and 
motives  as  may  be  necessary:  — 

A  native  had  made  a  profitable  deal  in  goats,  which  had  been 
taken  by  him  to  Jaffa  and  sold.  He  had  cleared  something  like 
two  thousand  medjidies,  and  one  of  his  neighbors  saw  the  money 
paid  to  him  in  Jaffa. 

When  the  two  men  returned,  the  second  one  went  to  the  kaima- 
kain  (head  man)  and  said  that  he  had  seen  one  thousand  medji- 
dies paid  to  the  goat-keeper.  If  some  charge  were  trumped  up 
against  the  goat-keeper,  the  informing  neighbor  went  on  to  sug- 
gest, he  would  visit  him  in  prison  and  get  him  to  disgorge  the  coin, 
trusting  to  the  generosity  of  the  kaimakam  for  a  reward. 

The  goat-keeper  was  immediately  thrown  into  prison  on  the 
charge  of  having  committed  a  murder  in  the  mountains  some  time 
before. 

He  was  naturally  panic-stricken.  After  he  had  spent  a  week  in 
jail,  the  neighbor  was  allowed  to  visit  him  and  tender  him  advice. 


-~>t>  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

The  neighbor  said  that  the  kaimakam  had  complete  proof  regard- 
ing the  murder,  but  he  himself  had  learned  that  if  two  thousand 
medjidies  were  paid  to  the  kaimakam,  the  prisoner  would  be 
released. 

The  accused  man  swore  that  he  had  no  such  sum  at  his  dis- 
posal, and  the  neighbor,  with  a  sigh,  recommended  him  in  that 
case  to  commend  his  soul  to  Allah,  for  his  execution  would  be  only 
a  matter  of  days. 

The  doomed  man  then  urged  his  supposed  friend  to  remain 
with  him,  and  finally  told  him  where  the  two  thousand  medjidies 
were  concealed.  The  traitor  took  the  money,  kept  half  of  it  and 
gave  the  other  half  to  the  kaimakam,  who  returned  to  the  inform- 
ant fifty  medjidies,  or  thereabouts. 

The  ruined  man  was  then  released,  and  went  to  the  kaimakam, 
hoping  to  get  back  part  of  the  money.  Being  a  liar  also,  he  swore 
that  he  had  given  the  neighbor  three  thousand  medjidies. 

The  kaimakam  was  naturally  indignant,  seeing  he  had  received 
but  a  third  of  the  supposed  haul,  and  promptly  put  the  conspirator 
in  prison  for  the  same  murder  of  which  the  first  man  had  for- 
merly been  accused.  Before  the  informant  got  out  of  jail  he  had 
to  return  the  two  thousand  medjidies  he  had  stolen  from  the  goat- 
keeper,  and  also  to  collect  another  thousand  medjidies  of  his  own 
to  bestow  upon  the  kaimakam.  So  he  was  one  thousand  medjidies 
worse  off  than  before  he  meditated  his  treacherous  design. 

17. _ Tell  the  story  of  "Paper  Watts"  (§  75)  from  the 
minister's  point  of  view.  Dwell  upon  the  events  before 
and  after  the  catastrophe  and  reduce  all  that  is  told  by 
Barrie  to  two  or  three  sentences. 

18.  —  Narrate  the  story  of  a  strike  as  told  by  a  walking 
delegate. 

19.  —  Write  a  story  which  will   amuse  and   interest  a 
child  eight  years  old.     It  should  be  clear  and  simple,  though 
not  affectedly  so,  and  should  have  plenty  of  life  and  move- 
ment.    An  interesting  type  of  plot  for  this  purpose  is  that 
in  which  a  child,  trying  to  attain  some  object  on  which  he 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 


257 


has  set  his  heart,  encounters  a  series  of  obstacles,  a  new 
obstacle  arising  as  often  as  the  old  one  is  overcome. 

20.  —  The  following   paragraph   is  taken   from   a  local 
paper.     Point  out  its  defects  as  narrative.     Then  rewrite 
it  at  some  length,  fill- 
ing   out    the   missing     L^^^^A^IH^ v  ^ 

details  from  imagina- 
tion :  — 

A  funny  scene  on  Ex- 
change Place  Saturday 
night  was  a  man  driv- 
ing a  team  hitched  to  a 
big  sleigh  and  dragging 
a  horse  and  carriage 
backwards.  Soon  the 
horse  fell  down  or  was 
pulled  over  backwards, 
then  some  one  stopped 
the  team.  Nobody 
seemed  to  know  how  the 
sleigh  hitched  onto  the 
carriage  wheel,  but  a 
broken  tie  strap  showed 
that  the  horse  had  been 
hitched  a  short  distance 
from  where  the  man  was 
discovered  dragging  him 
away. 

21.  — Write      the 
story     suggested     by 
Morot's    Bravo    Toro 
(FigureS).    The  scene 

represented  in  the  picture  should  form,  as  it  were,  a  cross- 
section  (or,  to  change  the  figure,  a  snap-shot)  of  some  part 
of  the  narrative. 


FIGURE  5. 


258  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

22.  —  Complete  the  following  narrative  :  — 

Mr.  Watson  had  spent  a  night  with  his  party  on  the  mountain, 
and  at  noon  on  the  following  day  was  engaged  in  exploring  the 
southern  lava  stream  which  finds  its  way  down  the  side  of  the 
volcano.  With  no  thought  of  danger  he  wandered  entirely  away 
from  his  friends  and  the  guides. 

Coming  to  the  broad  lava  stream,  he  sat  down  under  the  shelter 
of  a  promontory  of  rocks,  and  gazed  upon  the  great  slow  river  of 
fire  flowing  before  him.  It  followed  a  straight  course  down  the 
mountain,  until,  at  some  distance  below,  it  entered  a  thicket  of 
trees  which  seemed,  as  he  watched  it  through  the  grass,  to  have 
remarkable  powers  of  resisting  combustion  from  the  lava. 

He  continued  this  until  almost  nightfall,  when  he  started  to 
return  to  camp.  As  he  returned,  leaving  the  lava  stream  at  his 
back,  he  saw  another  stream  before  him.  He  thought  at  first  that 
he  had  been  gazing  so  long  at  the  molten  river  that  it  had  caused 
him  to  see  lava  in  whatever  direction  he  looked,  and  he  walked  on, 
expecting  to  find  hard  ground  still  beneath  his  feet.  But  he  soon 
perceived  that  he  was  between  two  lava  streams,  one  of  which  cut 
him  off  from  the  camp. 

What  had  happened  was  this:  While  Mr.  Watson  had  been 
sitting  beneath  the  rock,  the  stream  of  lava  had  widened.  The 
rock  that  sheltered  him  had  divided  it,  and  it  was  now  flowing 
down  to  his  left  as  well  as  to  his  right. 

Then  it  occurred  to  him  that  he  could  go  down  the  stream,  and 
doubtless  get  around  the  head  of  the  new  one,  and  so  escape.  But 
before  he  had  gone  far  he  discovered  that  the  new  stream  united 
with  the  old  a  short  distance  farther  down  the  mountain. 

Mr.  Watson  was  now,  therefore,  on  an  island  of  solid  ground, 
with  a  river  of  fire  all  around  him.  He  looked  about  in  despair. 

23.  —  A  part  of  Figure  6  has  been  purposely  torn  away. 
Supply,  in  imagination,  the  missing  portion  and  write  the 
suggested  story.     The  picture  is  entitled  "The  Result  of 
the  Duel." 

24.  —  Complete  the  following  narrative,  rewording  it  from 
the  beginning  and  expanding   it  somewhat,  in  accordance 
with  the  following  suggestions  :  — 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION.  259 

(1)  What  message  did  Currado  send  to  the  cook  with  the 
crane  ?  What  did  the  cook  say  when  he  received  the 
message  ?  when  he  examined  the  crane  ?  (2)  At  what  point 
did  the  friend  come  in  ?  What  did  he  say,  and  what  did 
the  cook  reply  ?  Wrhat  would  the  cook's  attitude  naturally 


FIGURE  6. 

be  at  first,  and  how  would  the  friend  endeavor  to  overcome 
his  scruple  ?  (3)  Picture  the  host's  surprise  and  embarrass- 
ment when  he  discovered  the  mutilation.  What  did  the 
guests  say  to  one  another?  In  what  words  did  Currado 
command  the  cook  to  be  sent  for  ?  (4)  Imagine  the  cook's 


260  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

face  and  manner  as  he  entered  the  room.  What  did  Currado 
say  to  him,  and  how  did  he  say  it  ?  What  did  the  cook 
reply  ?  (5)  Think  of  some  of  the  incidents  that  occurred  as 
the  two  men  rode  along  together.  \Vhat  questions  did 
Currado  ask,  and  what  did  the  cook  reply  ?  (6)  For  the 
continuation  devise  some  way  in  which  the  cook  could  make 
good  his  rash  assertion  that  cranes  have  only  one  leg. 

Currado,  a  citizen  of  Florence,  having  one  day  taken  a  crane 
with  his  hawk,  sent  it  to  his  cook  to  be  dressed  for  supper.  After 
it  had  been  roasted,  the  cook  yielded  to  the  importunities  of  one 
of  his  friends  and  gave  him  a  leg  of  the  crane.  His  master  was 
greatly  incensed  at  seeing  tbe  bird  served  up  in  this  mutilated 
form.  The  cook  being  sent  for,  excused  himself  by  a^s.-rting  that 
cranes  have  only  one  leg.  Ou  hearing  this  Currado  was  still 
further  exasperated,  and  commanded  him  to  produce  a  live  crane 
with  only  one  leg,  or  expect  the  severest  punishment.  Next 
morning  the  cook,  accompanied  by  his  master,  set  out  in  quest  of 
this  rara  avis,  trembling  all  the  way  with  terror,  and  fancying 
everything  he  saw  to  be  a  crane  with  two  legs.  At  length  — 


25.  —Analyze  the  specimens  of  narrative  below  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  outline:  — 

1.  Purpose  or  central  idea. 

2.  Elements  of  the  conflict. 

3.  Point  of  highest  interest  or  climax. 
1.    Character  of  the  conclusion. 

5.   Irrelevant  incidents  or  descriptions. 

(a)  Putney  Bridge  at  half  an  hour  before  high  tide ;  thirteen 
or  fourteen  steamers ;  five  or  six  thousand  boats,  and  fifteen  or 
twenty  thousand  spectators.  This  is  the  morning  of  the  great 
University  race,  about  which  every  member  of  the  two  great 
Universities,  and  a  very  large  section  of  the  general  public,  have 
been  fidgeting  and  talking  for  a  month  or  so. 

The  bridge  is  black,  the  lawns  are  black,  every  balcony  and 
window  in  the  town  is  black ;  the  steamers  are  black  with  a 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION.  261 

swarming,  eager  multitude,  come  to  see  the  picked  youths  of  the 
upper  class  try  their  strength  against  one  another.  There  are  two 
friends  of  ours  nearly  concerned  in  the  great  event  of  the  day. 
Charles  is  rowing  there  in  the  Oxford  boat,  and  Marston  is  steer- 
ing. This  is  a  memorable  day  for  both  of  them,  and  more  espe- 
cially for  poor  Charles. 

Now  the  crowd  surges  to  and  fro,  and  there  is  a  cheer.  The 
men  are  getting  into  their  boats.  The  police-boats  are  busy  clear- 
ing the  course.  Now  there  is  a  cheer  of  admiration.  Cambridge 
dashes  out,  swings  round,  and  takes  her  place  at  the  bridge. 

Another  shout.  Oxford  sweeps  majestically  out  and  takes  her 
place  by  Cambridge.  Away  go  the  police-galleys,  away  go  all  the 
London  club-boats,  at  ten  miles  an  hour  down  the  course.  Now 
the  course  is  clear,  and  there  is  almost  a  silence. 

Then  a  wild  hubbub ;  the  people  begin  to  squeeze  and  crush 
against  one  another.  The  boats  are  off;  the  fight  has  begun; 
then  the  thirteen  steamers  come  roaring  on  after  them,  and  their 
wake  is  alive  once  more  with  boats. 

Everywhere  a  roar  and  a  rushing  to  and  fro.  Frantic  crowds 
upon  the  towing-path,  mad  crowds  on  the  steamers,  which  make 
them  sway  and  rock  fearfully.  Ahead,  Hammersmith  Bridge, 
hanging  like  a  black  bar,  covered  with  people  as  with  a  swarm  of 
bees.  As  an  eye-piece  to  the  picture,  two  solitary  flying-boats,  and 
the  flashing  oars,  working  with  the  rapidity  and  regularity  of 
a  steam-engine. 

"Who's  in  front?"  is  asked  by  a  thousand  mouths;  but  who 
can  tell  ?  We  shall  see  soon.  Hammersmith  Bridge  is  stretching 
across  the  water  not  a  hundred  yards  in  front  of  the  boats.  For 
one-half  second  a  light  shadow  crosses  the  Oxford  boat,  and  then 
it  is  out  into  sunlight  beyond.  In  another  second  the  same 
shadow  crosses  the  Cambridge  boat.  Oxford  is  ahead. 

The  men  with  light-blue  neckties  say  that,  "  By  George,  Oxford 
can't  keep  that  terrible  quick  stroke  going  much  longer  ; "  and  the 
men  with  dark-blue  ties  say,  u  Can't  she,  by  Jove  1 "  Well,  we 
shall  know  all  about  it  soon,  for  here  is  Barnes  Bridge.  Again 
the  shadow  goes  over  the  Oxford  boat,  and  then  one,  two,  three, 
four  seconds  before  the  Cambridge  men  pass  beneath  it.  Oxford 
is  winning  !  There  is  a  shout  from  the  people  at  Barnes,  though 
the  TToAAoi  don't  know  why.  Cambridge  has  made  a  furious  rush, 


262  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  NARRATION. 

and  drawn  nearly  up  to  Oxford  ;  but  it  is  useless.  Oxford  leaves 
rowing,  and  Cambridge  rows  ten  strokes  before  they  are  level. 
Oxford  has  won  !  —  Kingsley :  Ravenshoe,  chap,  xxiii. 

(b)  Around  the  head  of  the  lake  were  crags  and  precipices  in 
singularly  forbidding  arrangement.  As  we  turned  thither  we  saw 
no  possible  way  of  overcoming  them.  At  its  head  the  lake  lay  in 
an  angle  of  the  vertical  wall,  sharp  and  straight,  like  the  corner  of 
a  room  ;  about  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  for  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  of  this  a  pyramidal  pile  of  blue  ice  rose  from  the 
lake,  rested  against  the  corner,  and  reached  within  forty  feet  of 
the  top.  Looking  into  the  deep  blue  water  of  the  lake,  I  concluded 
that  in  our  exhausted  state  it  was  madness  to  attempt  to  swim  it. 
The  only  other  alternative  was  to  scale  that  slender  pyramid  of 
ice  and  find  some  way  to  climb  the  forty  feet  of  smooth  wall  above 
it.  ...  Upon  the  top  of  the  ice  we  found  a  narrow,  level  platform, 
upon  which  we  stood  together,  resting  our  backs  in  the  granite 
corner  and  looked  down  the  awful  pathway  of  King's  Canyon, 
until  the  rest  nerved  us  enough  to  turn  our  eyes  upward  at  the 
forty  feet  of  smooth  granite  which  lay  between  us  and  safety. 

Here  and  there  were  small  projections  from  its  surface,  little 
protruding  knobs  of  feldspar,  and  crevices  riven  into  its  face  for  a 
few  inches. 

As  we  tied  ourselves  together,  I  told  Cotter  to  hold  himself  in 
readiness  to  jump  down  into  one  of  these  in  case  I  fell,  and  started 
to  climb  up  the  wall,  succeeding  quite  well  for  about  twenty  feet. 
About  two  feet  above  my  hands  was  a  crack,  which,  if  my  arms 
had  been  long  enough  to  reach,  would  probably  have  led  me  to  the 
very  top;  but  I  judged  it  beyond  my  powers,  and,  with  great  care, 
descended  to  the  side  of  Cotter,  who  believed  that  his  superior 
length  of  arm  would  enable  him  to  make  the  reach. 

I  planted  myself  against  the  rock,  and  he  started  cautiously  up 
the  wall.  Looking  down  the  glare  front  of  ice,  it  was  not  pleasant 
to  consider  at  what  velocity  a  slip  would  send  me  to  the  bottom, 
or  at  what  angle,  and  to  what  probable  depth,  I  should  be  pro- 
jected into  the  ice-water.  Indeed,  the  idea  of  such  a  sudden  bath 
was  so  annoying  that  I  lifted  my  eyes  toward  my  companion.  He 
reached  my  farthest  point  without  great  difficulty,  and  made  a 
bold  spring  for  the  crack,  reaching  it  without  an  inch  to  spare,  and 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  263 

holding  on  wholly  by  his  fingers.  He  thus  worked  himself  slowly 
along  the  crack  toward  the  top,  at  last  getting  his  arms  over  the 
brink,  and  gradually  drawing  his  body  up  and  out  of  sight.  It 
was  the  most  splendid  piece  of  slow  gymnastics  I  ever  witnessed. 
For  a  moment  he  said  nothing;  but  when  I  asked  him  if  he  was 
all  right,  he  cheerfully  repeated,  "  All  right."  It  was  only  a  mo- 
ment's work  to  send  up  the  two  knapsacks  and  barometer,  and 
receive  again  my  end  of  the  lasso.  As  I  tied  it  round  my  breast, 
Cotter  said  to  me,  in  an  easy,  confident  tone,  "  Don't  be  afraid  to  bear 
your  weight."  I  made  up  my  mind,  however,  to  make  that  climb 
without  his  aid,  and  husbanded  my  strength  as  I  climbed  from  crack 
to  crack.  I  got  up  without  difficulty  to  my  former  point,  rested  there 
a  moment,  hanging  solely  by  my  hands,  gathered  every  pound  of 
strength  and  atom  of  will  for  the  reach,  then  jerked  myself  upward 
with  a  swing,  just  getting  the  tips  of  my  fingers  into  the  crack.  In 
au  instant  I  had  grasped  it  with  my  right  hand  also.  I  felt  the  sin- 
ews of  my  fingers  relax  a  little,  but  the  picture  of  the  slope  of  ice 
and  the  blue  lake  affected  me  so  strongly  that  I  redoubled  my 
grip  and  climbed  slowly  along  the  crack,  until  I  reached  the  angle, 
and  got  one  arm  over  the  edge  as  Cotter  had  done.  As  I  rested 
my  body  on  the  edge  and  looked  up  at  Cotter,  I  saw  that,  instead 
of  a  level  top,  he  was  sitting  upon  a  smooth,  roof-like  slope,  where 
the  least  pull  would  have  dragged  him  over  the  brink.  He  had 
no  brace  for  his  feet,  nor  hold  for  his  hands,  but  had  seated  him- 
self calmly,  with  the  rope  tied  round  his  breast,  knowing  that  my 
only  safety  lay  in  being  able  to  make  the  climb  entirely  unaided ; 
certain  that  the  least  waver  in  his  tone  would  have  disheartened 
me,  and  perhaps  made  it  impossible.  The  shock  I  received  on 
seeing  this  affected  me  for  a  moment,  but  not  enough  to  throw 
me  off  my  guard,  and  I  climbed  quickly  over  the  edge.  When  we 
had  walked  back  out  of  danger  we  sat  down  upon  the  granite  for 
a  rest  —  C.  King :  Mountaineering  in  tht  Sierra  Nevada. 


Exposition. 

1.  —  (Sections  80-8  f)  —  Are  the  following  passages  descrip- 
tion, narration,  or  exposition  ?  What  is  the  theme  in  each  ? 
How  has  the  writer  simplified  the  matter  ?  by  the  use  of 


264  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

simple  words?  by  the  use  of  synonyms?  by  the  use  of 
illustration  and  particular  instances?  by  proceeding  from 
familiar  to  less  familiar  ideas  ? 

(a)  I  have  already  noticed  the  example  of  very  pure  and  high 
typical  beauty  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  lines  and  gradations 
of  unsullied  snow :  if,  passing  to  the  edge  of  a  sheet  of  it,  upon 
the  lower  Alps,  early  in  May,  we  find,  as  we  are  nearly  sure  to 
find,  two  or  three  little  round  openings  pierced  in  it,  and  through 
these,  emergent,  a  slender,  pensive,  fragile  flower  whose  small, 
dark,  purple-fringed  bell  hangs  down  and  shudders  over  the  icy 
cleft  that  it  has  cloven,  as  if  partly  wondering  at  its  own  recent 
grave,  and  partly  dying  of  very  fatigue  after  its  hard-won  victory ; 
we  shall  be,  or  we  ought  to  be,  moved  by  a  totally  different  im- 
pression of  loveliness  from  that  which  we  receive  among  the  dead 
ice  and  the  idle  clouds.     There  is  now  uttered  to  us  a  call  for  sym- 
pathy, now  offered  to  us  an  image  of  moral  purpose  and  achieve- 
ment, which,  however  unconscious  or  senseless  the  creature  may 
indeed  be  that  so  seems  to  call,  cannot  be  heard  without  affec- 
tion, nor  contemplated  without  worship,  by  any  of  us  whose  heart 
is  rightly  tuned,  or  whose  mind  is  clearly  and  surely  sighted. 

—  Ruskin  :  Modern  Painters. 

(b)  It  must  never  be  forgotten,  in  discussing  the  past  and 
present  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  that  the  university  and  most  of 
its  colleges  were  originally  ecclesiastical  institutions,  dating  from 
the  time  when  there  was  complete  communion  and  accord  between 
the  Church  of  England  and  the  Papacy.     The  colleges  were  origi- 
nally, like  the  old  hospitals,  eleemosynary  establishments,  and 
like  the  monasteries,  under  a  common  rule  of  life  and  intended 
primarily  for  religious  purposes.     From  the  original  statutes  of 
the  colleges,  moreover,  it  is  abundantly  clear  that  they  were  in 
many  cases  founded  "  ad  studendum,"  i.e.,  with  the  idea  that  the 
inmates    should  devote    themselves  to  study,   not  to  teaching. 
Their  founders  desired   their  inmates  to  acquire  more  learning 
themselves,  but  did  not  require  them  to  impart  more  learning  to 
others.     After  the  Reformation,  the  compromise  between  Catholi- 
cism and  Protestantism,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  and  the  Church  of  England,  was  fully  reflected  in  the 
university  and  its  colleges.     The  old  statutes  were  retained  and 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  265 

professedly  respected,  but  practices  which  those  statutes  enjoined 
were  disregarded.  The  universities  remained,  indeed,  the  nursery 
of  the  clergy  and  the  headquarters  of  ecclesiastical  learning,  but 
as  the  Anglican  Church  now  professes  to  be  both  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  and  is  really  neither,  but  only  Anglican,  so  the  uni- 
versities then  professed  to  be  national  and  religious,  but  were 
neither,  and  only  academic.  In  1850  their  position  had  become 
incompatible  with  the  England  of  Free  Trade ;  and  the  Royal  Com- 
mission appointed  that  year  as  the  Oxford  University  Commission, 
while  a  similar  Commission  was  appointed  for  Cambridge,  was 
the  recognition  of  the  fact. —  Contemporary  Review,  November,  1892. 

(c)  Ordinary  men  must  work  to  live.     From  that  fact  come 
the  world's  greatest  goods  and  ills.     Ten  dollars  a  year,  stolen 
from  each  man  or  woman,  who  is  struggling  to  maintain  a  safe- 
guard for  the  future,   may  suffice  to  keep  a  score  of  men  in 
luxury,  but  the   thorough  public  understanding  of  this  method 
may  decrease  the  general  reverence  for  wealth.     We  are  doing 
in  all  directions  what  we  can  to  lessen  the  harms  of  poverty. 
We  (rather  ineffectually)   forbid  children   to  work   under  con- 
ditions that  stunt  their  physical  and  moral  growth.     We  do  not 
allow  women  to  labor  at  the  expense  of  future  generations.     We 
study  pauperism,  and  must  do  so  more  carefully  as  population 
becomes  more  dense.     We  watch  with  anxiety  statistics  bearing 
on  the  cost  of  living.     All  this  has  to  do  with  the  welfare  of 
the  classes  which   most  need  help,   and  all  this  is  as  worthy  a 
task  as  there  is  for  men  to  do;  but  nothing  has  a  more  direct 
bearing  on  the  welfare  of  the  struggling  many  than  honesty  in 
politics  and  honesty  in  finance.     The  injury  to  the  fairly  pros- 
perous is  considerable  when  self-seeking  and  dishonesty  become 
enthroned  in  great  storehouses  of  the  people's  wealth.     The  in- 
jury to  those  for  whom  mere  existence  means  a  struggle  is  many, 
many  times  more  great. 

(d)  Free  government  is  self-government  —  a  government  of  the 
people  by  the  people.     The  best  government  of  this  sort  is  that 
which  the  people  think  best.     An  imposed  government,  a  govern- 
ment like  that  of  the  English  in  India,  may  very  possibly  be  better ; 
it  may  represent  the  views  of  a  higher  race  than  the  governed  race ; 
but  it   is  not  therefore   a  free  government.  .A  free  government 


266  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

is  that  which  the  people  subject  to  it  voluntarily  choose.  In 
a  casual  collection  of  loose  people  the  only  possible  free  gov- 
ernment is  a  democratic  government.  Where  no  one  knows  or 
cares  for  or  respects  any  one  else,  all  must  rank  equal ;  no 
one's  opinion  can  be  more  potent  than  that  of  another.  But,  as 
has  been  explained,  a  deferential  nation  has  a  structure  of  its  own. 
Certain  persons  are  by  common  consent  agreed  to  be  wiser  than 
others,  and  their  opinion  is,  by  consent,  to  rank  for  much  more 
than  its  numerical  value.  We  may  in  these  happy  nations 
weigh  votes  as  well  as  count  them,  though  in  less  favored  coun- 
tries we  can  count  only.  But  in  free  nations,  the  votes  so  weighed 
or  so  counted  must  decide.  A  perfect  free  government  is  one 
which  decides  perfectly  according  to  those  votes;  an  imperfect, 
one  which  so  decides  imperfectly ;  a  bad,  one  which  does  not  so 
decide  at  all.  Public  opinion  is  the  test  of  this  polity  ;  the  best 
opinion  which,  with  its  existing  habits  of  deference,  the  nation 
will  accept:  if  the  free  government  goes  by  that  opinion,  it  is  a 
good  government  of  its  species;  if  it  contravenes  that  opinion,  it  is 
a  bad  one. — Bagehot:  The  English  Constitution,  p.  221. 

(e)  I  lately  heard  a  man  of  thought  and  energy  contrasting 
the  want  of  ardor  and  movement  which  he  now  found  amongst 
young  men  in  this  country  with  what  he  remembered  in  his  own 
youth,  twenty  years  ago.  "  What  reformers  we  were  then  1 "  he 
exclaimed ;  "  what  a  zeal  we  had  1  how  we  canvassed  every  insti- 
tution in  Church  and  State,  and  were  prepared  to  remodel  them 
all  on  first  principles ! "  He  was  inclined  to  regret,  as  a  spiritual 
flagging,  the  lull  which  he  saw.  I  am  disposed  rather  to  regard 
it  as  a  pause  in  which  the  turn  to  a  mode  of  spiritual  progress  is  be- 
ing accomplished.  Everything  was  long  seen,  by  the  young  and 
ardent  amongst  us,  in  inseparable  connection  with  politics  and 
practical  life.  We  have  pretty  well  exhausted  the  benefits  of  see- 
ing things  in  this  connection,  we  have  got  all  that  can  be  got  by 
so  seeing  them.  Let  us  try  a  more  disinterested  mode  of  seeing 
them ;  let  us  betake  ourselves  more  to  the  serener  life  of  the  mind 
and  spirit.  This  life,  too,  may  have  its  excesses  and  dangers; 
but  they  are  not  for  us  at  present  Let  us  think  of  quietly  enlarg- 
ing our  stock  of  true  and  fresh  ideas,  and  not,  as  soon  as  we 
get  an  idea  or  half  ,an  idea  be  running  out  with  it  into  the  street, 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  267 

and  trying  to  make  it  rule  there.  Our  ideas  will,  in  the  end, 
shape  the  world  all  the  better  for  maturing  a  little.  Perhaps  in 
fifty  years'  time  it  will  in  the  English  House  of  Commons  be  an 
objection  to  an  institution  that  it  is  an  anomaly,  and  my  friend 
the  Member  of  Parliament  will  shudder  in  his  grave.  But  let 
us  in  the  meanwhile  rather  endeavor  that  in  twenty  years'  time 
it  may,  in  English  literature,  be  an  objection  to  a  proposition 
that  it  is  absurd.  That  will  be  a  change  so  vast,  that  the  im- 
agination almost  fails  to  grasp  it.  Ab  integro  sceclorum  nascitur 
ordo.  —  Arnold  :  The  Function  of  Criticism. 

2.  —  (Sections  81-82}  —  What  complete  or  partial  definition 
is  made  or  suggested  in  each  of  the  following  ?  What  classi- 
fication is  suggested  in  each  case  ? 

(a)  Culture  is  a  vague  term :  but  when  we  speak  of  a  man  of 
culture  we  certainly  mean  a  man  of  liberal  education ;  and  if  our 
definition  of  a  liberal  education  be  correct,  a  man  may  be  a  man 
of  culture  though  destitute  of  Latin  and  Greek.     On  the  other 
hand,  inasmuch  as  a  liberal  education  has  regard  to  the  ideal  of 
"  man,"  it  follows  that  the  humanistic  or  man-subjects  promote  a 
liberal  education  and  consequent  culture,  in  a  sense  which  realistic 
studies  do  not.     A  man  trained  solely  in  the  latter  cannot  be  liber- 
ally educated ;  a  man  trained  solely  in  the  former  can,  on  the  con- 
trary, be  liberally  educated.    In  short,  what  is  called  culture  is 
not  within  the  reach  of  the  man  trained  solely  on  the  real-natural- 
istic, but  it  is  attainable  by  the  man  trained  solely  on  the  real- 
humanistic. 

(b)  Although  the  heart  and  mind  of  Whittier  were  for  the 
most  part  absorbed  in  the  agitation  against  slavery,  some  of  the 
strongest  proofs  of  his  purely  artistic  faculty  were  exhibited  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  Civil  War ;  among  these  may  be  named  such 
ballads  as  Maud  Muller,  Skipper  Ireson,  and  The  Pipes  at  Luck- 
now.    It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  the  national  as  distinguished 
from  the  sectional  awakening  to  the  charm  of  Whittier's  verse 
dates  from  the  publication  in  1866-7  of  Snow-Bound  and  The  Tent 
on  the  Beach.     In  these  compositions  it  is  evident  that  his  aspira- 
tions and  endeavors  are  tending  to  turn  away  from  a  homiletical 
or  didactic  purpose  to  the  embodiment  of  aesthetic  beauty.     But, 


268  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

although  he  no  longer  weakened  the  artistic  effect  of  a  composi 
tion  by  tacking  to  it  a  moral,  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  Whittier 
was  ever  a  conscious  advocate  of  art  for  art.  His  whole  nature 
was  steeped  in  a  sense  of  duty  and  responsibility,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  he  could  even  comprehend  beauty  divorced  from  goodness. 
His  conception  of  the  poet  was  rather  that  of  the  votes,  or  bard, 
who  elevates,  than  that  of  the  poeta,  or  maker,  whose  exclusive 
purpose  is  to  please.  In  his  view  the  possession  of  artistic  powers 
implied  a  divine  commission  to  lift,  invigorate,  and  purify  man- 
kind.— New  York  Sun. 

(C)  All  education  is,  in  a  sense,  education  of  will.  Of  course, 
for  scientific  exactness,  we  distinguish  will  from  other  activities 
of  mind,  and  we  may  for  convenience  here  assume  the  ordinary 
psychological  division  into  intelligence,  emotion,  and  will ;  but  it 
is  an  elementary  commonplace  of  psychology,  that  though  these 
activities  are  distinguishable  in  thought,  they  are  not  to  be  treated 
as  if  they  were  usually  separated  in  mental  life.  Will  is  therefore 
not  to  be  conceived  as  an  activity  in  itself,  capable  of  being  isolated 
from  intelligence  and  emotion.  In  such  isolation  it  is  unreal  ab- 
straction, it  is  merely  the  abstract  concept  which  physical  science 
finds  useful  for  its  purposes  under  the  name  of  force.  As  a  con- 
crete reality,  will  is  active  intelligence  stimulated  by  emotion  :  or, 
as  it  may  equally  well  be  described,  it  is  active  emotion  directed 
by  intelligence.  —  J.  C.  Murray  :  Educational  Review,  June,  1891. 

3.  —  (Sections  82-83)  —  Study  the  following  specimen  of 
scientific  definition.  Mark  the  partial  definitions  and  the 
trial  definitions.  What  are  the  chief  methods  of  exposition 
employed  ? 

There  has  ever  prevailed  among  men  a  vague  notion  that 
scientific  knowledge  differs  in  nature  from  ordinary  knowledge. 
By  the  Greeks,  with  whom  Mathematics  —  literally  things  learnt 
—  was  alone  considered  as  knowledge  proper,  the  distinction  must 
have  been  strongly  felt ;  and  it  has  ever  since  maintained  itself  in 
the  general  mind.  Though,  considering  the  contrast  between  the 
achievements  of  science  and  those  of  daily  unmethodic  thinking, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  such  a  distinction  has  been  assumed ;  yet 
it  needs  but  to  rise  a  little  above  the  common  point  of  view,  to  see 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  269 

that  no  such  distinction  can  really  exist ;  or  that  at  best  it  is  but 
a  superficial  distinction.  The  same  faculties  are  employed  in 
both  cases ;  and  in  both  cases  their  mode  of  operation  is  funda- 
mentally the  same. 

If  we  say  that  science  is  organized  knowledge,  we  are  met  by 
the  truth  that  all  knowledge  is  organized  in  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree—  that  the  commonest  actions  of  the  household  and  the  field 
presuppose  facts  colligated,  inferences  drawn,  results  expected; 
and  that  the  general  success  of  these  actions  proves  the  data  by 
which  they  were  guided  to  have  been  correctly  put  together.  If, 
again,  we  say  that  science  is  prevision — is  a  seeing  beforehand  — 
is  a  knowing  in  what  times,  places,  combinations,  or  sequences 
specified  phenomena  will  be  found,  we  are  yet  obliged  to  confess 
that  the  definition  includes  much  that  is  utterly  foreign  to  science 
in  its  ordinary  acceptation.  For  example,  a  child's  knowledge  of 
an  apple.  This,  as  far  as  it  goes,  consists  in  previsions.  When  a 
child  sees  a  certain  form  and  colors,  it  knows  that  if  it  puts  out 
its  hand  it  will  have  certain  impressions  of  resistance,  and  round- 
ness and  smoothness ;  and  if  it  bites,  a  certain  taste.  And  mani- 
festly its  general  acquaintance  with  surrounding  objects  is  of  like 
nature  —  is  made  up  of  facts  concerning  them,  so  grouped  as  that 
any  part  of  a  group  being  perceived,  the  existence  of  the  other 
facts  included  in  it  is  foreseen. 

If,  once  more,  we  say  that  science  is  exact  prevision,  we  still  fail 
to  establish  the  supposed  difference.  Not  only  do  we  find  that 
much  of  what  we  call  science  is  not  exact,  and  that  some  of  it,  as 
physiology,  can  never  become  exact,  but  we  find  further,  that 
many  of  the  previsions  constituting  the  common  stock  alike  of 
wise  and  ignorant  are  exact.  That  an  unsupported  body  will 
fall ;  that  a  lighted  candle  will  go  out  when  immersed  in  water ; 
that  ice  will  melt  when  thrown  on  the  fire  —  these,  and  many  like 
predictions  relating  to  the  familiar  properties  of  things,  have  as 
high  a  degree  of  accuracy  as  predictions  are  capable  of.  It  is 
true  that  the  results  predicted  are  of  a  very  general  character ;  but 
it  is  none  the  less  true  that  they  are  rigorously  correct  as  far  as 
they  go ;  and  this  is  all  that  is  requisite  to  fulfil  the  definition. 
There  is  perfect  accordance  between  the  anticipated  phenomena  and 
the  actual  ones ;  and  no  more  than  this  can  be  said  of  the  highest 
achievements  of  the  sciences  specially  characterized  as  exact. 


270  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

Seeing  thus  that  the  assumed  distinction  between  scientific 
knowledge  and  common  knowledge  is  not  logically  justifiable,  and 
yet  feeling,  as  we  must,  that  however  impossible  it  may  be  to 
draw  a  line  between  them,  the  two  are  not  practically  identical, 
there  arises  the  question  —  What  is  the  relationship  that  exists 
between  them  ?  A  partial  answer  to  this  question  may  be  drawn 
from  the  illustrations  just  given.  On  reconsidering  them,  it  will 
be  observed  that  those  portions  of  ordinary  knowledge  which  are 
identical  in  character  with  scientific  knowledge,  comprehend  only 
such  combinations  of  phenomena  as  are  directly  cognizable  by  the 
senses,  and  are  of  simple,  invariable  nature.  That  the  smoke  from 
a  fire  which  she  is  lighting  will  ascend,  and  that  the  fire  will  pres- 
ently boil  water,  are  previsions  which  the  servant-girl  makes 
equally  well  with  the  most  learned  physicist;  they  are  equally 
certain,  equally  exact  with  his  ;  but  they  are  previsions  concerning 
phenomena  in  constant  and  direct  relation  — phenomena  that  fol- 
low visibly  and  immediately  after  their  antecedents  —  phenomena 
of  which  the  causation  is  neither  remote  nor  obscure  —  phenomena 
which  may  be  predicted  by  the  simplest  possible  act  of  reasoning. 

If,  now,  we  pass  to  the  previsions  constituting  what  is  commonly 
known  as  science  —  that  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  will  happen  at  a 
specified  time;  and  when  a  barometer  is  taken  to  the  top  of  a 
mountain  of  known  height,  the  mercurial  column  will  descend 
a  stated  number  of  inches ;  that  the  poles  of  a  galvanic  battery 
immersed  in  water  will  give  off,  the  one  an  inflammable  and  the 
other  an  inflaming  gas,  in  definite  ratio  —  we  perceive  that  the 
relations  involved  are  not  of  a  kind  habitually  presented  to  our 
senses;  that  they  depend,  some  of  them,  upon  special  combina- 
tions of  causes,  and  that  in  some  of  them  the  connection  between 
antecedents  and  consequents  is  established  only  by  an  elaborate 
series  of  inferences.  The  broad  distinction,  therefore,  between 
the  two  orders  of  knowledge  is  not  in  their  nature,  but  in  their 
remoteness  from  perception. 

If  we  regard  the  cases  in  their  most  general  aspect,  we  see  that 
the  laborer,  who,  on  hearing  certain  notes  in  the  adjacent  hedge, 
can  describe  the  particular  form  and  colors  of  the  bird  making 
them;  and  the  astronomer,  who,  having  calculated  a  transit  of 
Venus,  can  delineate  the  black  spot  entering  on  the  sun's  disk,  as 
it  will  appear  through  the  telescope,  at  a  specified  hour,  do  essen- 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  271 

tially  the  same  thing.  Each  knows  that  on  fulfilling  the  requisite 
conditions,  he  shall  have  a  preconceived  impression  —  that  after  a 
definite  series  of  actions  will  come  a  group  of  sensations  of  a  fore- 
known kind.  The  difference,  then,  is  not  in  the  fundamental 
character  of  the  mental  acts,  or  in  the  correctness  of  the  previsions 
accomplished  by  them,  but  in  the  complexity  of  the  processes 
required  to  achieve  the  previsions.  Much  of  our  commonest 
knowledge  is,  as  far  as  it  goes,  rigorously  precise.  Science  does 
not  increase  this  precision ;  cannot  transcend  it.  What  then  does 
it  do  ?  It  reduces  other  knowledge  to  the  same  degree  of  precision. 
That  certainty  which  direct  perception  gives  us  respecting  co- 
existences and  sequences  of  the  simplest  and  most  accessible  kind, 
science  gives  us  respecting  coexistences  and  sequences,  complex  in 
their  dependencies  or  inaccessible  to  immediate  observation.  In 
brief,  regarded  from  this  point  of  view,  science  may  be  called  an 
extension  of  the  perceptions  by  means  of  reasoning. 

On  further  considering  the  matter,  however,  it  will  perhaps  be 
felt  that  this  definition  does  not  express  the  whole  fact — that 
inseparable  as  science  may  be  from  common  knowledge,  and  com- 
pletely as  we  may  fill  up  the  gap  between  the  simplest  previsions 
of  the  child  and  the  most  recondite  ones  of  the  natural  philoso- 
pher, by  interposing  a  series  of  previsions  in  which  the  complexity 
of  reasoning  involved  is  greater  and  greater,  there  is  yet  a  differ- 
ence between  the  two  beyond  that  which  is  here  described.  And 
this  is  true.  But  the  difference  is  still  not  such  as  enables  us  to 
draw  the  assumed  line  of  demarcation.  It  is  a  difference  not  between 
common  knowledge  and  scientific  knowledge,  but  between  the 
successive  phases  of  science  itself,  or  knowledge  itself  —  which- 
ever we  choose  to  call  it.  In  its  earlier  phases  science  attains 
only  to  certainty  of  foreknowledge ;  in  its  later  phases  it  further 
attains  to  completeness.  We  begin  by  discovering  a  relation  :  we 
end  by  discovering  the  relation.  Our  first  achievement  is  to  fore- 
tell the  kind  of  phenomenon  which  will  occur  under  specific  con- 
ditions :  our  last  achievement  is  to  foretell  not  only  the  kind  but 
the  amount.  Or,  to  reduce  the  proposition  to  its  most  definite 
form  —  undeveloped  science  is  qualitative  prevision ;  developed 
science  is  quantitative  prevision. 

This  will  at  once  be  perceived  to  express  the  remaining  distinc- 
tion between  the  lower  and  the  higher  stages  of  positive  knowl- 


272  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

edge.  The  prediction  that  a  piece  of  lead  will  take  more  force  to 
lift  it  than  a  piece  of  wood  of  equal  size,  exhibits  certainty,  but 
not  completeness,  of  foresight.  The  kind  of  effect  in  which  the 
one  body  will  exceed  the  other  is  foreseen,  but  not  the  amount  by 
which  it  will  exceed.  There  is  qualitative  prevision  only.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  prediction  that  at  a  stated  time  two  particular 
planets  will  be  in  conjunction;  that  by  means  of  a  lever,  having 
arms  in  a  given  ratio,  a  known  force  will  raise  just  so  many 
pounds ;  that  to  decompose  a  specified  quantity  of  sulphate  of  iron 
by  carbonate  of  soda  will  require  so  many  grains  —  these  predic- 
tions exhibit  foreknowledge,  not  only  of  the  nature  of  the  effects  to 
be  produced,  but  of  the  magnitude,  either  of  the  effects  themselves,  of 
the  agencies  producing  them,  or  of  the  distance  in  time  or  space  at 
which  they  will  be  produced.  There  is  not  only  qualitative  but 
quantitative  prevision. 

And  this  is  the  unexpressed  difference  which  leads  us  to  consider 
certain  orders  of  knowledge  as  especially  scientific  when  contrasted 
with  knowledge  in  general.  Are  the  phenomena  measurable?  is 
the  test  which  we  unconsciously  employ.  Space  is  measurable: 
hence  Geometry.  Force  and  space  are  measurable :  hence  Statics. 
Time,  force,  and  space  are  measurable :  hence  Dynamics.  The 
invention  of  the  barometer  enabled  men  to  extend  the  principles 
of  mechanics  to  the  atmosphere ;  and  Aerostatics  existed.  When 
a  thermometer  was  devised  there  arose  a  science  of  heat,  which 
was  before  impossible.  Such  of  our  sensations  as  we  have  not  yet 
found  modes  of  measuring  do  not  originate  sciences.  We  have  no 
science  of  smells ;  nor  have  we  one  of  tastes.  We  have  a  science 
of  the  relations  of  sounds  differing  in  pitch,  because  we  have  dis- 
covered a  way  to  measure  them  ;  but  we  have  no  science  of  sounds 
in  respect  to  their  loudness  or  their  timbre,  because  we  have  got  no 
measures  of  loudness  and  timbre. 

Obviously  it  is  this  reduction  of  the  sensible  phenomena  it 
represents,  to  relations  of  magnitude,  which  gives  to  any  division 
of  knowledge  its  especially  scientific  character.  Originally  men's 
knowledge  of  weights  and  forces  was  in  the  same  condition  as  their 
knowledge  of  smells  and  tastes  is  now  —  a  knowledge  not  extend- 
ing beyond  that  given  by  unaided  sensations ;  and  it  remained 
so  until  weighing  instruments  and  dynamometers  were  invented. 
Before  there  were  hour-glasses  and  clepsydras,  most  phenomena 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  273 

could  be  estimated  as  to  their  durations  and  intervals,  with  no 
greater  precision  than  degrees  of  hardness  can  be  estimated  by  the 
fingers.  Until  a  thermometric  scale  was  contrived,  men's  judg- 
ments respecting  relative  amounts  of  heat  stood  on  the  same  foot- 
ing with  their  present  judgments  respecting  relative  amounts  of 
sound.  And  as  in  these  initial  stages,  with  no  aids  to  observation, 
only  the  roughest  comparisons  of  cases  could  be  made,  and  only 
the  most  marked  differences  perceived ;  it  is  obvious  that  only  the 
most  simple  laws  of  dependence  could  be  ascertained  —  only  those 
laws  which  being  uncomplicated  with  others,  and  not  disturbed  in 
their  manifestations,  required  no  niceties  of  observation  to  disen- 
tangle them.  Whence  it  appears  not  only  that  in  proportion  asknowl- 
edge  becomes  quantitative  do  its  previsions  become  complete  as 
well  as  certain,  but  that  until  its  assumption  of  a  quantitative  char- 
acter it  is  necessarily  confined  to  the  most  elementary  relations. 

—  Spencer :  The  Genesis  of  Science. 

4.  —  (Section  83)  —  Make  a  one-sentence  definition  of  the 
following :  — 

1.   A  college.  2.   A  university.  3.  A  student. 

4.   An  educated  man.         5.   A  gentleman. 

5.  —  (Section  83)  —  Write  an  essay  on  one  of  the  follow- 
ing terms  in  which  your  purpose  shall  be  to  reach  finally  a 
satisfactory  definition.     On  the  way  to  the  final  definition 
record  all  of  your  trial  definitions,  and  include  all  of  the 
illustrations,  examples,  distinctions,  exceptions,  that  have 
come  to  you.     A   good  beginning  is  the   criticism   of  the 
dictionary  definition,  or  of  what  is  generally  understood  by 
the  term. 

1.  Religionl  5.  Free  Speech.  9.  Socialism. 

2.  Success.  6.  Natural  right.  10.  Liberty. 

3.  History.  7.  Anarchism.  11.  Culture. 

4.  Democracy.  8.  Nihilism.  12.  Progress. 

6.  —  (Section  83)  —  Criticise   the   following  by   the  four 
rules  of  logical  definition  :  — 


•J74  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

1.  Rhetoric  teaches  us  how  to  express  ourselves. 

2.  A  kangaroo  is  a  marsupial. 

3.  History  is  a  compound  of  poetry  and  philosophy. 

4.  Heroism  is  the  opposite  of  cowardice. 

5.  A  gentleman  is  one  who  never  inflicts  pain. 


7.  —  (Sections  84-87)  —  Criticise  the  following  by  the  rules 
of  division,  noting  the  principle  of  classification,  the  clear- 
ness and  completeness  of  the  division,  any  overlapping  of 
topics,  and  the  arrangement  of  topics  by  cause,  contrast,  or 
contiguity :  — 


(a)  Annexation  of  Canada. 

A.  Probability  of  ultimate  separation  of  Canada  from  England. 

1.  Divergence  of  commercial  interest. 

2.  Distance,  and  difference  in  character  of  the  people. 

3.  Influence  of  the  United  States. 

B.  Shall  annexation  to  the  United  States  follow? 

1.  Considerations  favorable  to  annexation. 
(a)   Extradition  laws  rendered  unnecessary. 

(6)   The  United  States  would  acquire  a  vast  and  valuable 

territory. 

(c)   Commercial  and  trade  restrictions  removed. 
(</)   "  Manifest  destiny."     The  two  countries  naturally  one. 

2.  Considerations  opposed  to  annexation. 

(a)   The  financial  condition  of  both  countries. 

(1)  Canada's  debt  increasing. 

(2)  Debt  of  the  United  States  decreasing. 
(6)    Undesirable  classes  of  Canada's  population. 

(c)    Vast  increase  of  government  machinery  necessary. 

(rf)  All  the  advantages  of  annexation  may  be  acquired  by 
better  trade-  and  extradition-treaties,  with  no  dis- 
advantages. 

3.  Estimate  of  weight  of  arguments  and  inference  against 

annexation. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  275 

(b)  Dangers  of  Unrestricted  Immigration. 

Introduction : 

1.  Extent  of  immigration  before  the  Civil  War;   character  of 

immigrants. 

2.  Numbers  and  general  character  of  present  immigrants. 
Discussion  : 

1.  Political  dangers. 

(a)    Influence  when  consolidated  against  American  inter- 
ests. 
(6)    Hostility  of  some  to  American  political  ideas. 

(c)  Dangers  arising  from  ignorance  ;  from  demagogues. 

(d)  Evil  results  of  party  efforts  to  secure  solid  foreign  vote. 

2.  Social  dangers. 

(a)   Tendency  to  clannishness  in  mode  of  life. 
(6)   The  educational  question, 
(c)    The  religious  question. 
Conclusion : 

1.  Need  of  new  naturalization  laws. 

2.  Need  of  a  restricted  franchise. 

3.  Need  of  more  stringent  immigration  laws. 

(c)  What  to  look  for  in  criticising  a  Book. 

A.  Human  interest. 

1.  Characterization. 

2.  Passion. 

3.  Idealism  or  realism. 

4.  Humor  and  pathos. 

5.  Moral  purpose. 

B.  Imagination. 

1.  Artistic  power. 

2.  Insight. 

3.  Image-making. 

4.  Originality. 

C.  Unity. 

1.  Design. 

2.  Constructive  power. 

3.  Plot. 

4.  Organic  relationship. 


276 

D.  Style. 

1.  Musical  power. 

2.  Phrasing  power. 

3.  Sentence-structure, 

E.  Attitude  of  the  writer. 

1.  Towards  truth. 

2.  Towards  philosophy. 

(a)    Constructive. 
(6)    Destructive, 
(c)    The  law  of  love. 

3.  Towards  contemporaries. 

4.  Towards  the  past. 

5.  Towards  the  ideals  of  his  age. 

6.  Towards  conservatism  and  progress. 

7.  Towards  religion  and  women. 

(d)    The  Real  Problem  of  the  Unemployed. 

I.   The  proper  method  of  solving  the  problem. 

A.  Not  by  impulsive  action. 

B.  By  careful  investigation. 

II.   Practical  application  of  the  method. 

A.  Places. 

1.  America ;  municipalities  and  charity  organizations. 

2.  England  ;  seventy-three  municipalities. 

B.  Limitations  of  English  experiment. 

1.  Work  not  involving  stigma  of  pauperism. 

2.  Work  that  all  can  perform. 

'•'•.    Work  that  does  not  compete  with  other  laborers. 

4.   Work  that  does  not  interfere  with  regular  employ 

ment. 
III.    Results  of  the  experiments. 

A.  Facts  stated  in  reports. 

1.  In  general. 

2.  In  special  cases. 

B.  Inferences  stated  in  reports. 

1.  Men  who  fear  pauperism  not  reached. 

2.  Men  reached  were  the  "  permanently  unemployed." 

3.  Unskilled  labor  not  properly  so  called. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  277 

IV.   General  inference  as  to  nature  of  problem. 

A.  Not  to  find  work  for  the  unemployed. 

B.  To  make  the  unemployed  work. 

1.  To  train  the  incompetent. 

2.  To  punish  the  unwilling. 

(e)    Government  Ownership  of  Railways. 

Introduction  : 

1.  Rapid   growth,   magnitude,  and  importance  of  the  railwaj 

system. 

2.  Some  evils  and  abnormal  conditions. 
Discussion : 

1.  Need  of  some  reform  evinced  by 

(a)   Disregard  of  public  good  by  corporations. 

(6)    The  failure  of  competition. 

(c)    Power  of  corporations  over  legislation. 

2.  Legal  methods  of  reform,  short  of  ownership. 

(a)  State  and  national  commissions  with  power  to  force 
fair  treatment. 

(6)  Withdrawal  of  franchises  in  case  of  gross  misman- 
agement. 

(c)    Exaction  of  truthful  reports  from  the  roads. 

3.  Dangers  of  government  ownership. 

(«)  Mismanagement  and   loss.    Examples   from    foreign 

countries. 

(6)    Deterioration  of  roads  through  lack  of  interest, 
(c)   Opportunities  for  political  rings. 
Conclusion : 

1.  Government  ownership  not  the  solution. 

2.  Legal  methods  of  reform,  short  of  ownership,  sufficient. 

(f)  Wordsworth  is   Unpopular. 
A.   At  home, 

(a)    In  his  lifetime, 

1.  His  poetry  sold  poorly ; 

2.  The  public  was  slow  to  recognize  him  ; 

3.  He  was  effaced  by  Scott  and  Byron ; 

4.  He  was  overshadowed  by  Tennyson. 


'218  A&tilVXMh'XTS  IN 

(6)    Since  his  death, 

1.  Coleridge's  influence,  which  once  told  in  his  favor, 

has  waned ; 

2.  In  spite  of  his  eulogists,  the  public  has  remained  cold. 
B.  On  the  Continent,  which 

(a)   Recognized  the  glory  of  Newton  and  Darwin ; 
(6)    Does  not  know  Wordsworth  ; 

(c)    Yet    Continental    critics    long    failed   to  do    justice    to 
Shakespeare  and  Milton. 

(g)   College  Examination*. 

A.  Principles  sought. 

1.  Obviously  necessary  to  ascertain  fitness  for  admission  to 
(a)    The  learned  professions. 

(ft)    The  civil  service. 

(c)    College.    But  (c)  is  modified  by 

(1)  Admission  by  diploma  from  accredited  schools, 

(2)  Admission  by  certificate  from  teachers  of  known 

excellence. 

2.  The  purpose  in  examining  in  the  three  cases  above  is 

(a)   To    ascertain   fitness   or    unfitness,  —  something   un- 
known to  the  examiners. 

B.  Antithesis.     But  in  college  this  cannot  be  the  purpose  in  re- 

gard to  most  students,  since 
1.   The  instructor  learns  the  attainments  of  his  students  from 

their  daily  work.    But  (1)  is  modified  by 
(a)   In    large   recitation  classes,  doubt    about    individual 

cases. 
(I)    In  lecture  courses,  doubt  may  exist  about  all. 

C.  Partial  conclusions : 

1.  For  doubtful  cases,  examination  necessary  for  information 

of  instructor. 

2.  For  the  majority  of  students,  examination  unnecessary  for 

this  purpose. 

3.  Resulting  alternatives:  either  abolish  for  (2)  or  seek  fur- 

ther  reasons. 

D.  The  real  purposes : 

1.   To  convince  unfaithful  student*  of  their  deficiencies. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  279 

2.  To  give  the    others    an  opportunity    for    comprehensive 

review. 

3.  To  show  all  what  are   regarded  as  the   most  important 

points. 
E.  Application  of  principles  locally. 

8.  —  (  Sections  83-87)  —  Classify :  — 

1.  Chairs.  4.   Novels. 

2.  Fences.  5.   Games. 

3.  Schools.  6.   Governments. 

9.  —  (Sections  83-87}  —  On  what  principle  is  the  division 
made  in  each  of  the  following  selections  ? 

(a)  That  Henry  Thomas  Buckle's  thoughts  and  conversation 
were  always  on  a  high  level,  is  remembered  by  a  rapidly  departing 
group  of  people  who  knew  him  as  the  friend  of  their  elders.    Mr. 
Charles  Stewart  says  of  him:  "I  recollect  a  saying  of  his  which 
not  only  greatly  impressed  me  at  the  time,  but  which  I  have  ever 
since  cherished   as  a  test  of  the  mental  caliber  of  friends  and 
acquaintances.     Buckle   said,   in  his  dogmatic  way :    4  Men   and 
women  range  themselves  into  three  classes  or  orders  of  intelli- 
gence ;    you  can  tell  the  lowest  class  by  their  habit  of  always 
talking  about  persons,  the  next  by  the  fact  that  their  habit  is 
always  to  converse  about  things,  the  highest  by  their  preference 
for  the  discussion  of  ideas.' " 

(b)  Chemistry  may  be  of  use  to  medicine  in  at  least  three 
quite  different  ways.    One  of  these  is  concerned  with  finding 
out  what  things  are  made  of.     This  kind  of  chemistry  is  called 
analytical  chemistry.     Another  way  in  which  chemistry  can  help 
medicine  depends  upon  the  ability  of   the  modern  chemist,  not 
only  to  find  out  what  the  things  are  made  of,  but  also  to  discover 
how  the  parts  are  put  together.    This  branch  of  chemistry  is  called 
structural  chemistry,  because  it  has  to  do  not  only  with  the  ma- 
terials, but  also  with  the  way  in  which  these  materials  are  ar- 
ranged.   Yet  another  method  of  helpfulness  comes  from  a  still 
more  recent  development  of  chemistry,  commonly  called  physical 
chemistry,  which  deals  with  the  phenomena  lying  on  the  border 
line  between  physics  and  chemistry — especially  that  part  of  the 


280  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

border  line  concerning  the  relation  of  energy  to  material.  The 
physical  chemist  must  know,  not  only  what  things  are  made  of 
and  how  these  elements  are  put  together,  but  also  what  energy  is 
concerned  in  putting  them  together,  and  what  energy  is  set  free 
when  they  are  decomposed.  —  Theodore  Richards. 

10.  —  (Section  88)  —  What  methods  of  exposition  are  used 
in  each  of  the  following  ? 

(a)    We  piled,  with  care,  our  nightly  stack 
Of  wood  against  the  chimney-back,  — 
The  oaken  log,  green,  huge,  and  thick. 
And  on  its  top  the  stout  back-stick ; 
The  knotty  fore-stick  laid  apart, 
And  filled  between  with  curious  art 
The  ragged  brush  ;  then,  hovering  near, 
We  watched  the  first  red  blaze  appear, 
lizard  the  sharp  crackle,  caught  the  gleam 
On  whitewashed  wall  and  sagging  beam, 
I'ntil  the  old,  rude-furnished  room 
Burst,  flower-like,  into  rosy  bloom  : 
While  radiant,  with  a  mimic  flame 
Outside  the  sparkling  drift  became, 
And  through  the  bare-boughed  lilac-tree 
Our  own  warm  hearth  seemed  blazing  free. 

—  Whittier :  Snow-Bound. 

0>)  To  the  student  of  political  history,  and  to  the  English  stu- 
dent above  all  others,  the  conversion  of  the  Roman  Republic  into 
a  military  empire  commands  a  peculiar  interest  Notwithstanding 
many  differences,  the  English  and  the  Romans  essentially  resemble 
one  another.  The  early  Romans  possessed  the  faculty  of  self-gov- 
ernment beyond  any  people  of  whom  we  have  historical  knowledge, 
with  the  one  exception  of  ourselves.  In  virtue  of  their  temporal 
freedom,  they  became  the  most  powerful  nation  in  the  known 
world ;  and  their  liberties  perished  only  when  Rome  became  the 
mistress  of  the  conquered  races  to  whom  she  was  unable  or  unwill- 
ing to  extend  her  privileges.  If  England  was  similarly  supreme, 
if  all  rival  powers  were  eclipsed  by  her  or  laid  under  her  feet,  the 
Imperial  tendencies,  which  are  as  strongly  marked  in  us  as  our 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  281 

love  of  liberty,  might  lead  us  over  the  same  course  to  the  same 
end.  —  Froude:  Ccesar ;  A  Sketch. 

(c)  The  sporting  spirit  has  improved  among  us.  We  are  still 
somewhat  too  anxious  to  win,  but  the  excess  of  eagerness  is  a  trifle 
compared  to  what  it  was.  Gain  in  sporting  amenity,  in  sporting 
cultivation,  so  to  speak,  has  a  mollifying  influence  on  our  whole 
tone,  and  nothing,  therefore,  is  more  welcome  than  the  interna- 
tional contests,  in  which  we  seek  not  to  fall  below  our  visitors  in 
urbanity.  A  tennis  player,  for  instance,  who  delayed  the  game  on 
a  pretext,  in  order  to  worry  a  more  nervous  antagonist,  would  be 
condemned  to-day  even  by  the  same  men  who  might  have  admired 
his  cleverness  half  a  dozen  years  ago.  "  Bluffing  the  umpire  "  in 
amateur  baseball  is  no  longer  looked  upon  as  honorable.  Yachting 
has  always  been  on  a  higher  plane  of  courtesy  than  other  sports, 
and  it  is  a  charming  bit  of  comedy  that  the  only  notorious  excep- 
tion was  an  English  nobleman,  whereas  one  of  the  best  examples 
of  cheery  sportsmanship  is  an  English  grocer.  In  tennis  we  may 
take  especial  satisfaction  in  the  fact  that  our  foremost  players  are 
all  in  active  business,  and  cease  work  for  a  few  weeks  only,  to  meet 
experts  whose  lives  are  devoted  to  the  game.  Golf  has  now  be- 
come international.  For  no  sport  do  we  owe  Great  Britain  so 
much  appreciation  as  for  this,  the  friend  of  old  men  and  children, 
of  women  and  strong  athletes,  the  ally  of  nature  and  her  beauty, 
an  exercise  which  strengthens  the  muscles  and  the  organs  and  puts 
no  strain  upon  the  nerves.  Automobile  contests  have  taken  place 
only  in  foreign  countries,  and  there  is  no  demand  for  them  here. 
Thus  far,  automobiling  for  speed  is  on  a  level  with  jumping  from 
Brooklyn  Bridge.  Boxing,  "  the  noble  art  of  self-defence,"  seems 
to  be  so  inseparable  from  brutality  that  its  fine  features  of  skill 
and  spirit  are  almost  shut  off  from  all  except  the  rough  profes- 
sional, and  no  attention  is  paid  by  the  general  public  to  any  but 
the  championship  contests.  Even  prize-fighting  is  less  brutal  than 
it  was,  and  all  the  more  respectable  sports  are  gaining  in  extent 
and  quality.  Hundreds  of  gymnasiums  now  are  found  in  cities 
which  a  few  years  ago  had  none,  and  indeed,  for  indoor  exercise, 
we  now  have  more  facilities  than  any  other  country. 

11.  —  (Section  88)  —  Write  an  explanation  of  one  of  the 
following :  — 


282  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

1.  Making  a  newspaper.  7.  Learning  to  swim. 

2.  Binding  a  book.  8.  The  travelling  library. 

3.  How  to  study.  9.  Initiative  and  referendum. 

4.  How  to  read  a  book.  10.  Wireless  telegraphy. 

5.  How  to  care  for  a  furnace.  11.  Electric  signs. 

6.  The  game  of  tennis. 

12.  —  (Section  89)  —  Write  on  one  of  the  following,  using 
the  narrative  method :  — 

1.  Churoh-going.  5.  Growing  worldly  wise. 

2.  Keeping  a  diary.  6.  Changes  in  fashions. 

3.  The  decay  of  sentiment.  7.  Humors  of  a  political  campaign. 

4.  Letter-writing.  8.  The  examination  room. 

13.  —  (Section  89)  —  Write  on  one  of  the  following,  using 
the  method  of  description :  — 

1.  Difficulties  of  having  fun.  7.   The  student  of  to-day. 

2.  Troubles  in  entering  college.  8.   The  professor. 

3.  How  students  recite.  9.  The  football  man. 

4.  The  new  maid-servant.  10.  The  society  man. 

5.  The  shop-girl.  11.  The  wire-puller. 

6.  Being  a  co-ed. 

14.  —  (Sections  88-91)  —Explain  the  terms  :  — 

1.  Manual  labor.  3.  Manifest  destiny. 

2.  Centre  of  population.  4.   The  B.A.  degree. 

15. —  (Section  90)  — Explain  all  of  the  unusual  words  in 
the  following  selections.  Rewrite  in  simple  language. 

(a)  Generic  ideas  are  appercipient  masses.  By  blending  they 
reenforce  that  element  of  the  presentation  which  has  a  common 
content  with  them,  and  the  other  elements  which  they  do  not 
share  are  thrust  out  of  sight,  unless  some  other  appercipient  mass 
is  awakened  to  receive  them. 

(]>)  A  word  as  to  strain-sheet  engineering,  as  to  what  it  con- 
notes. A  mode  of  thinking,  followed  by  sequence  of  action, 
wherein  fundamental  repose  in  formulas  and  calculations  derived 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  283 

from  various  highly  conventional  assumptions,  coupled  with  a 
failure  to  recognize  molecular  motion,  or  structural  motion,  and 
a  subsumption,  explicitly,  implicitly,  and  tacitly  postulated,  that  a 
perfection  of  mechanical  workmanship  obtains  which  is  sometimes 
realized,  i.e.  false  assumption  of  hypothetical  relations.  —  "  Riveted 
Lattice  for  Railroad  Bridges  of  Medium  Span,"  Engineering  News, 
January  23,  1908. 

(c)  The  effect  contemplated  by  the  author  [Henry  James]  is 
not  the  integrity  of  a  purely  aesthetic  impression,  as  in  the  case  of 
Pater.  Mr.  James  has  rather  in  view  an  intellectual  explicitness 
of  analytical  statement,  not  given  in  successive  parts,  but  as  a 
whole,  thus  faithfully  reflecting  mental  processes  that  are  not 
sequent,  but  simultaneous.  His  purpose  is  to  give  a  psychological 
vivisection,  all  the  strata  being  presented  in  a  single  view.  The 
result  is  an  unexampled  and  most  interesting  phenomenon  in  lit- 
erature—  interesting,  that  is,  as  a  psychological  study.  Ordi- 
narily an  architectural  structure  which  is  suspensive  regards  sup- 
ports in  its  progression,  confident,  at  every  point,  of  a  stability  by 
which  the  past  at  least  is  secure.  But  Henry  James  holds  his 
fabric  in  suspense,  with  no  visible  support,  while  he  turns  upon 
his  course  describing  an  ellipse,  and  ellipses  within  that  ellipse  — 
always  a  faithful  following  of  the  psychological  involutions  in  the 
author's  subjective  analysis  —  until  the  reader  of  average  intelli- 
gence is  lost  in  the  bewildering  maze. 

16.  —  (Sections  88-91)  —  Explain  the  difference  between : 

1.  Discovery  and  invention.  8.   Description  and  exposition. 

2.  Salary  and  wages.  9.   Poverty  and  pauperism. 

3.  Work  and  play.  10.   Charity  and  alms-giving. 

4.  Humor  and  satire.  11.  Fancy  and  imagination. 

5.  Wicked  and  depraved.  12.   Ignorant  and  illiterate. 

6.  Novel  and  romance.  13.   Obvious  and  apparent. 

7.  Learning  and  wisdom.  14.   To  effect  and  to  affect. 

17.  —  (Sections  88-91)  —  Explain  the  following  quotations : 

1.   He  often  acts  unjustly  who  does  not  do  a  certain  thing,  not 
only  he  who  does  a  certain  thing.  —  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus. 


284  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

2.  The  misfortunes  hardest  to  bear  are  those  that  never  come. 

-Lowell. 

3.  There  are  no  accidents  in  my  philosophy.  —  Lincoln. 

4.  Fame  enters  every  household  in  her  quest  for  favorites. 

—  Shauck. 

18.  —  (Section  91)  —  Write  an  interpretation  of  :  — 

1.   Character  in  dogs.     2.    A  certain  picture.     3.   A  certain  book. 
4.  Moods  of  a  rainy  day.        5.   A  certain  piece  of  music. 

19.  —  (Sections  88-91)  —  What  methods  of  exposition  in 
the  following  ?     What  approaches  to  definition  and  classifi- 
cation ? 

(a)  What  a  wonderful  institution  the  intelligent  man-horse  of 
Japan  has  become !     He  has  all  the  virtues  of  his  equine  brother 
and  none  of  his  vices.     You  beckon  to  your  horse  to  come  across 
the  street,  and  he  at  once  obeys  you.     He  never  shies  at  a  piece  of 
white  paper  and  cares  naught  for  a  steam-roller.     Without  bit  or 
bridle  or  check-rein  he  goes  just  where  you  tell  him.     Moreover, 
he  may  be  much  wiser  than  you  yourself  are  in  many  matters,  and 
will  tell  you  the  direction,  and  all  the  turnings  that  lie  between 
you  and  your  destination,  descanting,  if  you  desire  him  to  do  so, 
upon  the  points  of  interest  on  your  route,  and  the  view-points  from 
which  you  can  get  the  best  glimpses  of  the  surrounding  country. 
If  the  robe  that  keeps  you  warm  in  winter  gets  untucked,  the  man- 
horse  stops  and  adjusts  it,  and  if  you  wish  to  buy  a  newspaper  to 
while  away  the   time,  or   a  basket  of   oranges  and  persimmons 
wherewith  to  refresh  yourself,  he  lets  down  the  shafts  and  trots  off 
to  the  nearest  store  to  make  the  purchase.     If  you  wish  for  no 
refreshments  and  for  no  information,  he  respects  your  feelings  and 
acknowledges  your  right  to  taciturnity,  and  keeps  on  his  steady 
jog-trot. 

(b)  There  is  a  radical  difference  between  relaxation  and  rec- 
reation.    To  relax  is  to  unbend  the  bow,  to  diminish  the  tension, 
to  lie  fallow,  to  open  the  nature  on  all  sides.     Relaxation  involves 
passivity ;  it  is  a  negative  condition  so  far  as  activity  is  concerned 
although  it  is  often  a  positive  condition  so  far  as  growth  is  con- 
cerned.    Recreation,  on  the  other  hand,  involves  activity,  but  ac- 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  285 

tivity  along  other  lines  than  those  of  work.  Froebel  first  developed 
the  educational  significance  and  uses  of  play.  Earlier  thinkers 
and  writers  on  education  had  seen  that  play  is  an  important  element 
in  the  unfolding  of  a  child's  nature,  but  Froebel  discerned  the 
psychology  of  play,  and  showed  how  it  may  be  utilized  for 
educational  purposes.  His  comments  on  this  subject  are  full  of 
significance :  "  The  plays  of  the  child  contain  the  germ  of  the  whole 
life  that  is  to  follow  ;  for  the  man  develops  and  manifests  himself 
in  play,  and  reveals  the  noblest  aptitudes  and  the  deepest  elements 
of  his  being.  .  .  .  The  plays  of  childhood  are  the  germinal  leaves 
of  all  later  life ;  for  the  whole  man  is  developed  and  shown  in  these, 
in  his  tenderest  dispositions,  in  his  innermost  tendencies." 

(c)  The  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  sources  of  Lincoln's 
power  results  from  the  bewildering  antitheses  which  the  subject 
presents,  not  only  antitheses  in  the  literature  which  he  produced, 
but  in  his  life  and  character.  His  life,  though  finished  at  its  noon, 
reached  from  a  humble  cabin  to  a  position  of  greatest  authority 
and  to  an  immortality  of  influence.  Though  deeply  religious,  he 
was  without  theology  or  dogma.  Though  his  companionship  was 
sought  by  lovers  of  mirth,  bereavements  of  his  youth  sound  minor 
chords  which  are  audible  in  every  movement  of  his  life's  symphony. 
Though  so  tender  of  heart  that  the  maintenance  of  military  dis- 
cipline gave  him  intense  and  enduring  pain,  he  stood  as  the 
indomitable  leader  in  the  most  destructive  war  of  the  century. 
Though  a  consistent  opponent  of  slavery,  he  had  no  word  of  mal- 
ediction for  those  who  practised  it.  Though  grave  with  anxiety 
for  the  close  of  the  war,  he  had  infinite  patience  with  subordinates 
who  disappointed  him  in  its  prosecution.  Bound  by  a  law  of  his 
being  to  speak  the  absolute  truth  to  all  to  whom  he  owed  speech, 
he  was  able  to  practise  all  the  concealment  required  by  the  most 
successful  statecraft.  Deeply  believing  that  in  both  its  ethical 
and  economic  aspects  slavery  was  wrong  and  at  variance  from  our 
theories  of  government,  he  would  not,  to  overthrow  it,  have  prose- 
cuted the  war  for  a  day  beyond  the  requirements  of  the  preservation 
of  the  Union.  An  excited  people  incapable  even  of  recognizing, 
much  less  of  estimating,  the  facts  in  the  complex  problem  set  for 
his  solution,  and  viewing  him  with  diverse  prejudices,  came  to 
contradictory  conclusions  respecting  his  character  and  abilities. 

—  Shauck  :   Abraham  Lincoln, 


286  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

(d)  The  question  is  frequently  asked,  How  are  conditions  so 
radically  changed  since  the  French  failure  to  build  a  sea-level 
canal  as  to  permit  the  United  States  to  undertake  it  now  with  any 
hope  of  success  ?  In  the  first  place,  the  first  French  management 
was  incompetent  and  extravagant  almost  beyond  conception. 
Secondly,  both  it  and  its  successor,  the  New  Company,  were  pri- 
vate corporations  working  for  a  commercial  profit,  and  obliged  to 
pay  at  least  six  per  cent  for  their  capital ;  whereas  the  American 
government,  being  able  to  borrow  at  almost  one-third  that  rate, 
can  invest  nearly  three  times  the  same  capital  without  placing  any 
greater  annual  burden  on  the  enterprise.  Thirdly,  great  progress 
has  taken  place  in  machine-excavators,  by  which  the  material  can 
be  handled  more  cheaply,  while  the  previously  unrealizable  develop- 
ment of  electric  power  at  Gamboa  will  pay  for  that  portion  of  the 
construction.  Finally,  as  a  justification  if  not  a  reason,  ships  have 
increased  so  greatly  in  size  that  what  would  have  sufficed  twenty 
years  ago  would  be  inadequate  now,  and  still  more  so  when  the 
canal  will  be  finished  a  dozen  years  hence. 

(6)  The  poet,  often  so  sad  himself,  sings  all  men's  joys  and 
sorrows  as  if  they  were  his  own,  and  there  is  nothing  that  can 
happen  to  us,  nothing  we  can  experience,  no  stroke  of  fate,  and  no 
mood  of  heart  or  mind  that  we  cannot  find  expressed  and  inter- 
preted for  us  somewhere  in  some  poet's  book.  Take  but  one  poet, 
—  Robert  Burns,  for  instance,  —  and  think  of  the  immense  addition 
to  the  sum  total  of  human  pleasure  and  human  consolation  that  his 
handful  of  Scotch  songs  has  made.  Who  asks,  "  What's  the  use 
of  poetry?"  when  he  joins  in  Auld  Lang  Syne,  and  feels  his 
heart  stirred  to  its  tearful  depths  with  the  sentiment  of  human 
brotherhood,  and  the  almost  tragic  dearness  of  friends. 

(f)  There  is  no  branch  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States 
which  the  oligarchy  of  business  more  closely  resembles  than  the 
American  Senate.  Both  the  Senate  and  a  company's  board  of  di- 
rectors are  elected,  but  under  conditions  which  have  become  far  from 
democratic.  The  Senate's  membership  in  large  part  is  the  result 
of  combined  political  and  commercial  manipulation.  The  board  of 
directors,  like  the  Senate,  unites  executive  and  legislative  and  even 
judicial  functions.  It  is  customary  to  divide  directors  as  Senators 
of  the  United  States  are  divided,  into  classes,  so  that  the  terms  of 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  287 

only  one-third  of  the  members  expire  in  any  one  year  —  a  device 
that  serves  to  perpetuate  power.  Like  the  Senate,  directors  can 
meet  behind  closed  doors  in  executive  session  and  give  out  no  re- 
port of  debates. 

(g)  It  will  doubtless  be  generally  confessed  that  the  departures 
of  the  American  people  from  the  way  originally  ordained  for  them 
were  never  so  common  and  never  so  disquieting  as  now.  In  offi- 
cial circles  offences  of  malfeasance  and  corrupt  breaches  of  public 
trust  are  alarmingly  frequent.  The  old  landmarks  of  integrity 
and  faithfulness  to  duty  which  once  indicated  our  nation's  course 
of  safety  are  rashly  neglected ;  and  public  extravagance,  no 
longer  universally  condemned  as  a  disgrace  to  official  stewardship, 
is  flaunted  before  our  people  as  evidence  of  the  splendor  of  our 
nationality.  In  business  and  social  circles  the  pursuit  of  money 
has  become  heartless  and  rapacious ;  the  deference  to  those  who 
have  won  great  fortunes  has  grown  in  many  quarters  to  be  so  un- 
questioning and  so  obsequious  as  to  amount  to  scandalous  servility, 
while  the  envy  of  the  rich  among  the  struggling  poor  is  more  than 
ever  bitter  and  menacing.  In  politics  there  is  far  too  often  con- 
cealed behind  a  pretence  of  devotion  to  the  public  weal  the  sly 
promotion  of  disreputably  selfish  and  personal  advantages ;  and  in 
the  industrial  field  there  is  no  longer  found  the  generous  and  con- 
tented cooperation  between  employer  and  employee  which  should 
insure  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  both.  In  addition  to  all 
this,  there  is  sadly  apparent  among  those  who  undertake  trustee- 
ship a  tendency  to  complacently  venture  upon  bold  and  rank  vio- 
lations of  duty,  only  explained  by  the  prevalence  of  lax  and  flip- 
pant conceptions  of  the  sacredness  of  fiduciary  obligations. 

(h)  What  Sainte-Beuve  desired  was  to  introduce  into  criti- 
cism a  kind  of  charm  and  reality,  which  had  been  lacking  before 
him.  To  this  end,  he  used  biography  and  history.  "  Know  the 
man  thoroughly  "  was  his  maxim.  There  were  three  chief  influ- 
ences, in  his  opinion,  that  made  a  writer  what  he  was :  (1)  the 
general  condition  of  literature  just  before  he  began  writing,  (2)  the 
particular  kind  of  education  he  received,  (3)  the  bent  of  his  own 
genius.  In  one  of  his  essays  Sainte-Beuve  says  that  it  is  important 
to  distinguish  a  writer  from  others  of  his  native  country,  and  then 
from  others  of  his  race.  Nature  has  helped  us  here,  for  we  can 


288  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

find  source  characteristics  in  the  parents  of  the  writer,  especially 
in  his  mother.  His  children  also  should  be  studied  for  traits  that 
are  less  marked  in  him.  When  we  have  considered  his  parents 
and  children,  we  should  attend  to  his  education  and  inquire  into 
his  studies.  Very  important  is  the  first  group  of  friends  in  which 
we  find  him  after  his  talent  has  been  recognized,  the  first  poetic 
centre  that  helps  to  form  him.  Every  work  that  he  afterwards 
produced  should  be  judged  in  relation  to  the  social  group  to  which 
he  belonged,  and  the  circumstances  (political  and  social)  of  the 
moment.  Only  thus  can  the  critic  determine  the  writer's  origi- 
nality and  what  is  imitation  in  him.  We  must  not  discover 
beauties  in  his  work  that  he  did  not  put  there.  We  may  study 
his  peculiar  genius  best  at  the  moment  when  his  powers  begin  to 
decline  ;  for  then  we  can  easily  begin  to  compare  his  best  work 
with  his  poor  work.  We  may  judge  him  by  his  subsequent  ad- 
mirers and  disciples.  Affinities  betray  themselves.  Finally  we 
properly  ask :  What  were  his  religious  views?  How  was  he  af- 
fected by  Nature?  What  was  his  attitude  towards  women?  Was 
he  rich  or  poor?  What  was  his  manner  of  life?  his  vice?  his 
weakness  ?  These  things  tell  a  story. 

(i)  Among  the  various  biographies  of  Whitman,  Professor 
George  R.  Carpenter's  Walt  Whitman  is  distinctly  the  best  of 
those  accounts  of  the  poets  which  may  be  classed  as  appreciations 
rather  than  as  critical  estimates.  The  early  death  of  Professor 
Carpenter  is  a  distinct  loss  to  literary  scholarship  in  this  country. 
He  was  a  man  of  thorough  academic  training  and  of  lifelong  aca- 
demic association  ;  but  he  was  free  from  the  academic  bias,  from 
the  narrowness  of  vision  which  sometimes  overtakes  the  scholar. 
He  had  a  vigorous  and  independent  mind,  and  unconventionally 
attracted  rather  than  repelled  him.  Those  qualities  which  kept 
many  men  of  letters  aloof  from  the  author  of  Leaves  of  Grass 
awakened  Professor  Carpenter's  sympathy,  and  the  best  feature 
of  his  brief  biography  is  his  interpretation  of  Whitman's  view 
of  life  and  distinctive  message  to  his  time.  The  analysis  of  the 
poet's  philosophy  and  definition  of  the  "cosmic  conscious- 
ness" as  developed  in  Whitman  is,  in  its  clearness  of  state- 
ment, a  distinct  contribution  to  the  Whitman  literature.  The 
idea  comes  from  Dr.  Bucke,  who  declares  that  "few  of  our  race 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  289 

and  time  have  entered  into  this  consciousness,  but  it  is  the  highest 
step  in  the  same  slow  evolution  that  ripened  the  impersonal  con- 
sciousness of  the  animal  into  the  self-conscious  spirit  of  man."  It 
may  be  objected  that  Dr.  Bucke  is  simply  applying  an  imposing 
name  to  a  spiritual  quality  shared  by  nearly  all  men  of  vision,  but 
he  deserves  the  credit  of  having  localized,  so  to  speak,  a  very  vague 
and  indefinite  activity  of  the  mind,  and  Professor  Carpenter  has 
found  in  it  a  key  to  Whitman's  philosophy  and  to  his  art.  The 
expression  of  the  poet's  "chronic  mystical  perception"  in  his 
verse  and  prose  is  emphasized  as  contributing  to  our  knowledge  of 
Whitman's  intellectual  character  and  his  manner  of  speech,  and 
the  element  of  mysticism  in  his  mind  and  work  is  clearly  traced. 
Professor  Carpenter's  estimate  of  Whitman  is  suggested  by  the 
closing  sentence  of  this  biography :  "  He  is  the  first  and  most 
notable  of  those  who,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  in  Europe  and 
America,  preached  the  vision  of  the  world  as  love  and  comrade- 
ship ;  "  and  this  biography  is  distinctly  the  best  among  the  appre- 
ciations of  the  poet  that  have  appeared.  Mr.  Perry's  biography 
remains  the  best  among  the  critical  biographies.  —  The  Outlook, 
June  19,  1909. 

(j)  Kipling  has  performed  one  of  the  most  important  functions 
of  the  poet  —  the  function  of  interpreter  to  the  nation.  He  has 
revealed  certain  aspects  of  the  national  life,  and  made  our  people 
understand  themselves.  In  his  Recessional  Mr.  Kipling  has  inter- 
preted the  feeling  of  the  nation  with  an  insight  and  a  force  which 
are  truly  marvellous.  Humble  people  all  over  the  United  King- 
dom and  the  empire  have  during  the  Jubilee  been  deeply  impressed 
with  a  certain  dread  lest  the  rejoicings  should  be  made  an  excuse 
for  boasting  and  vainglory,  and  that  by  its  means  the  people's 
heart  should  be  turned  from  — 

"  What  makes  a  nation  happy  and  keeps  it  so;  " 

to  that  perilous  laudation  of  material  things  which,  in  the  end,  to 
borrow  Milton's  phrase  again  — 

".  .  .  ruins  kingdoms  and  lays  cities  flat." 

But  to  people  in  general  this  was  only  a  vague  uneasiness,  a 
dumb  warning  against  the  forgetting  of  the  true  meaning  of  the 
Jubilee.  Mr.  Kipling  has  seized  the  nation's  half-formed  thought, 


290  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

and,  with  a  poet's  insight  and  a  poet's  passion,  has  brought  it  forth 
in  conscious  and  coherent  words.  He  takes  the  awe-inspiring 
thought — what  is  all  this  but  dust  and  ashes  unless  God  is  with 
us  till  the  end?  and  gives  voice  to  the  nation's  dread  — "Lest  we 
forget  —  lest  we  forget  1  " 

"  Far-called  our  navies  melt  away  — 

On  dune  and  headland  sinks  the  fire  — 

Lo,  all  our  pomp  of  yesterday 
Is  one  with  Nineveh  and  Tyre! 

Judge  of  the  Nations,  spare  us  yet, 

Leat  we  forget  — lest  we  forget  1 

"  If,  drunk  with  the  sight  of  power,  we  loose 
Wild  tongues  that  have  not  Thee  in  awe  — 

Such  boasting  as  the  Gentiles  use 
Or  lesser  breeds  without  the  Law  — 

Lord  God  of  Hosts,  be  with  us  yet, 

Lest  we  forget  — lest  we  forget  I  " 

That,  we  venture  to  say,  was  the  feeling  in  thousands  of  hearts. 
But  neither  in  the  popular  mind  nor  in  the  poem  was  this  feeling 
in  any  sense  one  of  terror  or  unworthy  abasement.  It  was  but  the 
true  reaction  from  the  pomp  and  splendor  —  the  sudden  realization 
that,  after  all,  the  only  sacrifice  worthy  of  God  is  "  a  humble  and  a 
contrite  heart."  There  was  nothing  wrong,  nothing  but  what  was 
right  and  seemly,  in  the  national  thanksgiving  to  God,  held  amid 
the  shouts  of  the  people  and  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  armed 
men,  so  long,  but  only  so  long,  as  the  nation  remembered  that  it 
must  keep  always  the  humble  and  contrite  heart  —  the  heart  of 
the  man  who  prays  for  strength  not  to  forget  God  in  the  loneliness 
and  isolation  of  his  riches,  his  honors,  and  his  power.  He  who 
possesses  everything  that  the  material  world  can  give,  unless  he  is 
"  drowned  in  security,"  feels  far  more  than  the  poor  and  humble 
the  necessity  for  help  not  to  forget.  "  Lest  I  forget  —  lest  I  forget," 
if  he  has  a  heart  to  feel,  is  the  thought  that  masters  him. 

Just  in  the  same  way  a  nation,  if  it  is  sound  at  heart  and  not 
"  drowned  in  security,"  turns  at  the  zenith  of  its  strength  and 
power  to  the  thought,  "Lest  we  forget  —  lest  we  forget."  The 
fact  that  the  better  minds  of  the  nation  did  feel  this  instant  need 
for  the  "  ancient  sacrifice"  of  "  a  humble  and  contrite  heart,"  and 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  291 

that  the  most  virile,  and,  in  a  sense,  the  most  untamed  and  least 
reflective  of  our  poets  should  have  chosen  it  as  his  contribution  to 
our  great  tumult  of  rejoicing,  is  proof  that  we  are  still  "  God's  Eng- 
lishmen." Though  we  show  in  our  turbulent  strength  so  much  of 
the  "  heathen  heart,"  and  though  we  make  the  "  frantic  boast  "  and 
utter  the  "  foolish  word,"  we  have  yet  sense  enough  of  what  is  our 
place  in  the  world  to  still  pray  the  old  prayer  and  to  ask  "  Thy 
mercy  on  Thy  people,  Lord."  In  spite  of  all  "  the  roaring  and  the 
wreaths  "  we  remember  that  it  was  not  we  ourselves  but  God  who 
gave  us  the  dominion.  Truly  and  in  very  deed  the  poet  who  can 
bring  home  these  things  to  the  plain  ordinary  man  has  done  the 
nation  as  great  a  service  as  if  he  had  worked  for  her  with  the 
sword,  had  served  her  by  day  and  night  upon  the  sea,  or  had  toiled 
for  her  at  the  council  board  till,  like  Pitt,  he  sank  overwhelmed 
with  cares  not  his  own. — London  Spectator. 

20.  —  (Section  90)  —  Analyze  the  following  essay.  Make 
an  abstract  of  it.  Then  discuss  its  general  method  giving 
citations  to  illustrate  your  assertions. 

Aspirants  hoping  to  obtain  the  party  nomination  from  a  national 
convention  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  the  two  last  of  which, 
as  will  appear  presently,  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  viz.  Favorites, 
Dark  Horses,  Favorite  Sons. 

A  Favorite  is  always  a  politician  well  known  over  the  Union, 
and  drawing  support  from  all  or  most  of  its  sections.  lie  is  a  man 
who  has  distinguished  himself  in  Congress,  or  in  the  war,  or  in 
the  politics  of  some  state  so  large  that  its  politics  are  matter  of 
knowledge  and  interest  to  the  whole  nation.  He  is  usually  a  per- 
son of  conspicuous  gifts,  whether  as  a  speaker,  or  a  party  manager, 
or  an  administrator.  The  drawback  to  him  is  that  in  making 
friends  he  has  also  made  enemies. 

A  Dark  Horse  is  a  person  not  very  widely  known  in  the  country 
at  large,  but  known  rather  for  good  than  for  evil.  He  has  probably 
sat  in  Congress,  been  useful  on  committees,  and  gained  some  credit 
among  those  who  dealt  with  him  in  Washington.  Or  he  has  ap- 
proved himself  a  safe  and  assiduous  party  man  in  the  political 
campaigns  of  his  own  and  neighboring  states,  yet  without  reaching 
national  prominence.  Sometimes  he  is  a  really  able  man,  but 


292  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 

without  the  special  talents  that  win  popularity.  Still,  speaking 
generally,  the  note  of  the  Dark  Horse  is  respectability,  verging  on 
eolorlessness ;  and  he  is  therefore  a  good  sort  of  person  to  fall  back 
upon  when  able  but  dangerous  Favorites  have  proved  impossible. 
That  native  mediocrity  rather  than  adverse  fortune  has  prevented 
him  from  winning  fame  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  Dark  Horses 
who  have  reached  the  White  House,  even  if  they  have  seldom 
turned  out  bad  presidents,  have  even  more  seldom  turned  out 
distinguished  ones. 

A  Favorite  Son  is  a  politician  respected  or  admired  in  his  own 
state,  but  little  regarded  beyond  it.  He  may  not  be,  like  the  Dark 
Horse,  little  known  to  the  nation  at  large,  but  he  has  not  fixed  its 
eye  or  filled  its  ear.  He  is  usually  a  man  who  has  sat  in  the  state 
legislature  ;  filled  with  credit  the  post  of  state  governor ;  perhaps 
gone  as  senator  or  representative  to  Washington,  and  there  ap- 
proved himself  an  active  promoter  of  local  interests.  Probably  he 
possesses  the  qualities  which  gain  local  popularity  —  geniality, 
activity,  sympathy  with  the  dominant  sentiment  and  habits  of  his 
state ;  or  while  endowed  with  gifts  excellent  in  their  way,  he  has 
lacked  the  audacity  and  tenacity  which  push  a  man  to  the  front 
through  a  jostling  crowd.  More  rarely  he  is  a  demagogue  who 
has  raised  himself  by  flattering  the  masses  of  his  state  on  some 
local  questions,  or  a  skilful  handler  of  party  organizations  who  has 
made  local  bosses  and  spoilsmen  believe  that  their  interests  are  safe 
in  his  hands.  Anyhow,  his  personality  is  such  as  to  be  more 
effective  with  neighbors  than  with  the  nation,  as  a  lamp  whose 
glow  fills  the  side  chapel  of  a  cathedral  sinks  to  a  spark  of  light 
when  carried  into  the  nave.  —  Bryce:  American  Commonwealth. 

21. —  (Section  90)  —  Analyze  one  of  the  essays  named  in 
Appendix  A,  and  write  a  report  including  (1)  an  abstract 
of  the  essay;  (2)  a  discussion  of  its  general  method; 
(3)  citations  showing  the  special  methods  of  exposition 
used  most  often  in  the  essay,  and  the  kinds  of  paragraphs 
employed. 

22.  —  (Section  91}  —  Write  a  book  review,  following  the 
general  plan  of  the  outline  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter 
on  Exposition. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION.  293 

23. —  (Section  91)  —  Is  the  following  explanation  clear? 
If  not,  point  out  the  cause  of  obscurity  and  rewrite  in  clear 
and  simple  language. 

Here  we  turn  aside  to  consider  a  question  which  perhaps  has 
not  often  suggested  itself,  but  which  is,  nevertheless,  quite  inter- 
esting. Why  can  we  hear,  but  not  see  around  a  corner?  Some 
may  think  that  this  question  can  be  answered  by  saying  that  light 
moves  in  a  straight  line,  while  sound  does  not.  But  this  answer  is 
not  satisfactory.  It  is  known  that  light  and  sound  are  similar  in 
character ;  each  is  due  to  the  vibrations  of  a  medium,  and  each 
is  transmitted  in  waves.  Why,  then,  may  not  light  spread  around 
a  corner  as  well  as  sound  ?  The  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  dif- 
ferent lengths  of  sound  and  light  waves.  Sound-waves  themselves 
are  of  different  lengths,  the  graver  sounds  having  waves  of  greater 
length  than  the  more  acute.  Now  it  can  be  shown  mathematically 
that  the  greater  length  of  sound-waves  will  cause  the  sound  to 
be  diffused  around  the  obstruction.  Hence  the  bass  notes  of  a 
band  of  music  are  heard  more  distinctly  from  behind  a  wall  than 
the  higher  notes ;  and  as  the  person  moves  out  of  the  "  acoustic 
shadow  "  the  more  acute  notes  increase  in  distinctness.  So,  also, 
when  sound  is  transmitted  through  water  the  sound-waves  are 
shorter  than  in  the  air,  and  the  "  acoustic  shadow  "  is  fully  formed. 
As  the  length  of  sound-waves  in  the  air  is  sometimes  many  feet, 
while  the  length  of  the  longest  light  wave  is  not  more  than 
.0000266  of  an  inch,  it  is  no  longer  a  mystery  why  we  can  hear 
but  cannot  see,  around  a  corner. 

24.  —  (Section  91)  —  Explain  to  a  high  school  student  the 
following  comment  on  Longfellow's  poetry:  — 

Two  of  these  poems,  The  Psalm  of  Life  and  Excelsior,  have 
indeed  paid  the  price  of  a  too  apt  adjustment  to  the  ethical  mood 
of  that  "earnest"  moment  in  America.  They  were  not  so  much 
poems  as  calls  to  action,  and  now  that  two  generations  have  passed, 
those  trumpets  rust  upon  the  wall.  It  is  enough  that  they  had 
their  glorious  hour. 

25.  —  (Section   91)  —  In   the    accompanying  illustration 
(Figure  7)  the   letters  of   the  word  "Life"  appear  to  be 


\ 


294 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION. 


tipped  alternately  to  left  and  right,  whereas,  if  we  apply 
the  edge  of  a  ruler  to  them,  we  shall  discover  that  the  parts 
of  the  letters  are  precisely  vertical  or  horizontal.  Deter- 
mine the  cause  of  the  illusion  and  write  a  careful  explanation. 


FlOURK  7. 

26.—  (Section  91) — Of  the  following  passages  the  first 
is  said  to  contain  three  errors,  the  second  four  errors,  in 
alluding  to  the  well-known  story  in  the  Arabian  Nights. 
Having  read  the  original  story  point  out  the  errors  in  the 
allusions. 

(a)  She  [Effie  Deans]  amused  herself  with  visiting  the  dairy, 
in  which  she  had  so  long  been  assistant,  and  was  so  near  dis- 
covering herself  to  May  Hittly,  by  betraying   her  acquaintance 
with  the  celebrated  receipt  for  Dunlop  cheese,  that  she  compared 
herself  to  Bedridden  Hassan,  whom  the  vizier,  his  father-in-law, 
discovered  by  his  superlative  skill  in  composing  cream-tarts  with 
pepper  in  them.  —  Scott :  The  Heart  of  Mid-Lothian,  chap.  XLIX. 

(b)  I  ought  to  have  remembered  the  pepper  which  the  Princess 
of  Persia  puts  in  the  cream  tarts  in  the  «  Arabian  Nights." 

—  Thackeray  :   Vanity  Fair,  chap.  HI. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  295 

Argumentation. 

1.  —  (Section  92)  —  Are  the  following  paragraphs  exposi- 
tory or  argumentative  ?  What  is  the  topic  of  each  ?  If  the 
paragraph  is  argumentative,  what  does  it  prove,  and  what 
are  the  reasons  given  for  the  conclusion  arrived  at  ? 

(a)  There  can  be  no  true  civilization  without  liberal  govern- 
ment, and  no  liberal  government  without  order,  and  no  permanent 
and  reliable  order  with  the  disorderly  at  large.     In  this  country, 
where  opportunity  is  unlimited,  liberty  and  citizenship  should  be  a 
conditional  right.     The  observance  of  order,  and  abstention  from 
crime,  should  be  the  conditions.     Committing  of  crime  should  for- 
feit liberty  and  the  right  to  it ;  the  forfeiture  to  be  set  aside  and 
the  right  restored  only  on  evidence  that  the  offender  has  the  abil- 
ity and  the  will  thenceforth  to  observe  the  conditions.    There  is 
no  use  for  a  prison,  other  than  to  restrain  and  make  harmless  dis- 
orderly and  dangerous  persons  ;  and  it  is  immaterial  whether  they 
be  positively  or  negatively  such.     Within  the  prison,  physical  and 
ethical  forces  only  can  properly  govern.     Restraint  and  industry 
first,  and  the  development  by  any  practical  means  of  orderly  ele- 
ments in  the  prisoner,  as  far  as  his  capacities  will  permit,  last.     If 
accomplished  to  the  extent  that  he  can  be  trusted  with  liberty, 
give  it  to  him.     If  not,  keep  him  in  restraint  and  in  industry  —  if 
capable.     And  this  applies  to  every  kind  of  restraint ;  to  benevolent 
as  well  as  to  penal  prisons  —  for  they  are  all  prisons  in  a  strict 
sense. 

(b)  The  need  of  putting  the  Government  into  the  savings-bank 
business  is  not  very  apparent.     The  number  of  our  banks  has  been 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  facilities  for  putting  away 
savings  are  pretty  good,  except  in  some  remote  rural  districts, 
where  there  is  perhaps  not  a  great  deal  of  demand  for  such  insti- 
tutions.    The  post-offices  in  such  communities  are  not  very  well 
equipped  to  care  for  savings.     It  does  not  appear  that  the  call  for 
postal  savings  comes  from  the  circumference,  but  rather  from  the 
center.     It  is  true  the  English  post-offices  have  done  a  good  deal 
of  that  sort  of  work,  but  they  began  it  in  1861,  before  private  sav- 
ings-banks had  made  so  much  progress  as  they  have  now  done  in 


296  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

this  country.  In  England  the  postal  savings-banks  pay  only  2$ 
per  cent  interest,  while  in  the  United  States  the  private  savings 
institutions  pay  3  to  4  per  cent.  To  compete  with  the  private 
banks  our  post-offices  would  probably  be  obliged  to  pay  4  per 
cent. 

(C)  A  good  book  ought  to  have  a  long  life.  If  it  is  liked  this 
year  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  liked  ten  years  later, 
for  meantime  the  reading  public  has  changed ;  that  which  pleased 
the  man  of  thirty  will  please  the  man  who  was  only  twenty  when 
the  book  was  published.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether  this  imper- 
fect distribution  and  this  haste  and  waste  in  the  treatment  of  the 
brain  product  are  due  to  the  method  of  publication,  or  to  the  rage 
of  the  public  for  something  new.  It  is  true  that  the  literary  taste 
changes  in  a  generation  or  two,  but  we  believe  that  it  is  the  experi- 
ence of  publishers  that  a  real  book,  which  was  popular  a  generation 
ago,  will  have,  if  properly  revived,  as  large  an  audience  with  the  new 
public  as  it  had  with  the  old.  Books  in  this  respect  are  like  pic- 
tures, there  is  always  a  public  for  the  best,  when  the  public  has  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  them.  We  believe  that  the  publication  of 
good  literature,  adhered  to,  pushed,  and  advertised,  would  be  more 
profitable  than  the  constant  experiments  with  ephemeral  trash ; 
but  it  is  useless  to  moralize  about  this  in  an  age  when  there  is  such 
a  pressure  for  publication  of  new  things,  and  there  are  such  vast 
manufactories  which  feel  it  a  necessity  to  keep  their  hoppers  full 
of  the  grain  of  the  new  crop.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  if 
there  was  anywhere  a  controlling  desire  to  distribute  good  literature 
rather  than  a  manufacturer's  notion  of  turning  out  any  sort  of 
product  of  paper,  type,  and  ink,  the  public  would  be  the  gainer. 
And  perhaps  the  publishers  would  find  their  account  in  a  better 
educated  public  taste.  —  Charles  Dudley  Warner. 

(d)  The  nervous  strain,  the  temptations,  the  dangers  of  cities, 
are  the  theme  of  many  a  solemn  discourse.  The  boys  are  exhorted 
not  to  leave  the  farm,  with  its  healthfulness,  peace,  and  indepen- 
dence, for  a  life  of  drudgery  in  shop  or  office,  with  intervals  of  fever- 
ish and  unwholesome  excitement.  But  the  boy  usually  prefers 
to  listen  to  the  voices  that  call  rather  than  to  the  voices  that  warn, 
and  it  will  probably  never  be  otherwise,  for  the  motives  that  send 
him  to  the  city  are  among  the  most  powerful  that  human  nature, 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  297 

and  especially  the  nature  of  the  dominant  races,  knows.  Till  he 
has  learned  the  sad  lesson  of  defeat,  it  is  in  vain  to  preach  to  a 
man  the  blessings  of  peace.  He  loves  strife  rather,  the  chance  to 
measure  his  powers  against  those  of  his  fellows.  The  very  health 
and  strength  that  he  has  gained  in  the  country  inspire  him  with 
confidence  that  he  can  hold  his  own  in  the  battle.  Why,  he  asks, 
should  he  not  become  the  famous  lawyer,  the  bold  financier,  the 
leader  of  men,  rather  than  one  of  the  failures  in  the  great  crowd 
of  undistinguished  drudges  of  city  life?  Even  if  his  ambition 
soars  not  so  high,  he  longs  for  a  closer  view  of  the  great  drama  of 
which  he  catches  glimpses  in  the  newspaper  that  reaches  the  farm 
or  village,  to  be  an  eye-witness  of  those  wonderful  events  that  are 
related  in  its  columns.  Work,  strife,  pleasure,  all  are  carried  on 
among  those  great  aggregations  of  human  beings  at  a  high  pres- 
sure, and  that  will  always  be  attractive  in  spite  of  all  the  warnings 
of  wisdom  and  experience. 

2. —  (Section  93)  — What  is  the  exact  proposition  discussed 
in  the  following  ?  Make  a  careful  analysis  of  the  selection. 

Obedience  to  Instructions. 

Certainly,  gentlemen,  it  ought  to  be  the  happiness  and  glory  of 
a  representative  to  live  in  the  strictest  union,  the  closest  corre- 
spondence, and  the  most  unreserved  communication  with  his  con- 
stituents. Their  wishes  ought  to  have  great  weight  with  him; 
their  opinion  high  respect;  their  business  unremitted  attention. 
It  is  his  duty  to  sacrifice  his  repose,  his  pleasures,  his  satisfactions, 
to  theirs ;  and  above  all,  ever,  and  in  all  cases,  to  prefer  their 
interest  to  his  own.  But,  his  unbiassed  opinion,  his  mature 
judgment,  his  enlightened  conscience,  he  ought  not  to  sacrifice  to 
you,  to  any  man,  or  to  any  set  of  men  living.  These  he  does  not 
derive  from  your  pleasure;  no,  nor  from  the  law  and  the  constitu- 
tion. They  are  a  trust  from  Providence,  for  the  abuse  of  which  he 
is  deeply  answerable.  Your  representative  owes  you  not  his 
industry  only,  but  his  judgment;  which  he  betrays,  instead  of 
serving  you,  if  he  sacrifices  it  to  your  opinion. 

My  worthy  colleague  says,  his  will  ought  to  be  subservient  to 
yours.  If  that  be  all,  the  thing  is  innocent.  If  government  were 


298  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

a  matter  of  will  upon  any  side,  yours,  without  question,  ought  ta 
be  superior.  But  government  and  legislation  are  matters  of 
reason  and  judgment,  and  not  of  inclination  ;  and  what  sort  of 
reason  is  that,  in  which  the  determination  precedes  the  discussion ; 
in  which  one  set  of  men  deliberate,  and  another  decide;  and 
where  those  who  form  the  conclusion  are  perhaps  three  hundred 
miles  distant  from  those  who  hear  the  arguments? 

To  deliver  an  opinion,  is  the  right  of  all  men;  that  of  constit- 
uents is  a  weighty  and  respectable  opinion,  which  a  representative 
ought  always  to  rejoice  to  hear ;  and  which  he  ought  always  most 
seriously  to  consider.  But  authoritative  instructions,  mandates 
issued,  which  the  member  is  bound  blindly  and  implicitly  to  obey, 
to  vote,  and  to  argue  for,  though  contrary  to  the  clearest  convic- 
tion of  his  judgment  and  conscience,  —  these  are  things  utterly 
unknown  to  the  laws  of  this  land,  and  which  arise  from  a  funda- 
mental mistake  of  the  whole  order  and  tenor  of  our  constitution. 

Parliament  is  not  a  congress  of  ambassadors  from  different  and 
hostile  interests,  which  interests  each  must  maintain,  as  an  agent 
and  advocate,  against  other  agents  and  advocates ;  but  Parliament 
is  a  deliberative  assembly  of  one  nation,  with  one  interest,  that  of 
the  whole,— -where  not  local  purposes,  not  local  prejudices,  ought 
to  guide,  but  the  general  good,  resulting  from  the  general  reason 
of  the  whole.  You  choose  a  member,  indeed ;  but  when  you  have 
chosen  him,  he  is  not  a  member  of  Bristol,  but  he  is  a  member  of 
Parliament.  If  the  local  constituent  should  have  an  interest  or 
should  form  an  hasty  opinion  evidently  opposite  to  the  real  good 
of  the  rest  of  the  community,  the  member  from  that  place  ought 
to  be  as  far  as  any  other  from  any  endeavor  to  give  it  effect.  I 
beg  pardon  for  saying  so  much  on  this  subject ;  1  have  been  un- 
willingly drawn  into  it ;  but  I  shall  ever  use  a  respectful  frankness 
of  communication  with  you.  Your  faithful  friend,  your  devoted 
servant,  I  shall  be  to  the  end  of  my  life ;  a  flatterer  you  do  not 
wish  for.  On  this  point  of  instructions,  however,  I  think  it 
scarcely  possible  we  ever  can  have  any  sort  of  difference.  Perhaps 
I  may  give  you  too  much,  rather  than  too  little  trouble. 

From  the  first  hour  I  was  encouraged  to  court  your  favor  to  this 
happy  day  of  obtaining  it,  I  have  never  promised  you  anything  but 
humble  and  persevering  endeavors  to  do  my  duty.  The  weight  of 
that  duty,  I  confess,  makes  me  tremble ;  and  whoever  well  con- 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  299 

siders  what  it  is,  of  all  things  in  the  world,  will  fly  from  what  has 
the  least  likeness  to  a  positive  and  precipitate  engagement.  To  be 
a  good  member  of  Parliament  is,  let  me  tell  you,  no  easy  task,  — 
especially  at  this  time,  when  there  is  so  strong  a  disposition  to  run 
into  the  perilous  extremes  of  servile  compliance  or  wild  popularity. 
To  unite  circumspection  with  vigor  is  absolutely  necessary,  but  it 
is  extremely  difficult.  We  are  now  members  for  a  rich  commercial 
city ;  this  city,  however,  is  but  a  part  of  a  rich  commercial  nation, 
the  interests  of  which  are  various,  multiform,  and  intricate.  We 
are  members  for  that  great  nation,  which,  however,  is  itself  but 
part  of  a  great  empire,  extended  by  our  virtue  and  our  fortune  to 
the  farthest  limits  of  the  East  and  of  the  West.  AU  these  wide- 
spread interests  must  be  considered,  —  must  be  compared, — must 
be  reconciled,  if  possible.  We  are  members  for  a,  free  country; 
and  surely  we  all  know  that  the  machine  of  a  free  constitution  is 
no  simple  thing,  but  as  intricate  and  as  delicate  as  it  is  valuable. 
We  are  members  of  a  great  and  ancient  monarchy  ;  and  we  must 
preserve  religiously  the  true,  legal  rights  of  the  sovereign,  which 
form  the  keystone  that  binds  together  the  noble  and  well-con- 
structed arch  of  our  empire  and  our  constitution.  A  constitution 
made  up  of  balanced  powers  must  ever  be  a  critical  thing.  As 
such  I  mean  to  touch  that  part  of  it  which  comes  within  my 
reach.  I  know  my  inability,  and  I  wish  for  support  from  every 
quarter.  In  particular  I  shall  aim  at  the  friendship,  and  shall 
cultivate  the  best  correspondence,  of  the  worthy  colleague  you  have 
given  me.  —  Burke  :  Speech  to  the  Electors  of  Bristol. 

3. —  (Section  95)  —  Compare  the  following  arguments  and 
briefs :  — 

It  is  vehemently  maintained  by  some  writers  of  the  present  day 
that  Elizabeth  persecuted  neither  Papists  nor  Puritans  as  such,  and 
that  the  severe  measures  which  she  occasionally  adopted  were  dic- 
tated, not  by  religious  intolerance,  but  by  political  necessity.  .  .  . 
The  title  of  the  Queen,  they  say,  was  annulled  by  the  Pope ;  her 
throne  was  given  to  another ;  her  subjects  were  incited  to  rebel- 
lion ;  her  life  was  menaced ;  every  Catholic  was  bound  in  con- 
science to  be  a  traitor;  it  was,  therefore,  against  traitors,  not 
against  Catholics,  that  the  penal  laws  were  enacted.  .  .  . 


300  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

We  will  state  as  concisely  as  possible  the  substance  of  some 
of  these  laws.  As  soon  as  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne,  and  before 
the  least  hostility  to  her  government  had  been  shown  by  the  Cath- 
olic population,  an  act  passed  prohibiting  the  celebration  of  the 
rites  of  the  Romish  church.  .  .  . 

A  law  was  next  made,  in  1562,  enacting  that  all  who  had  ever 
graduated  at  the  universities  or  received  holy  orders,  all  lawyers 
and  magistrates,  should  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  when  tendered 
to  them.  .  .  .  After  the  lapse  of  three  months  ...  if  it  were 
again  refused,  the  recusant  was  guilty  of  high  treason.  .  .  .  What 
circumstances  called  for  this  extraordinary  rigor  ?  There  might  be 
disaffection  among  the  Catholics.  The  prohibition  of  their  worship 
would  naturally  produce  it.  But  it  is  from  their  situation,  not  from 
their  conduct,  from  the  wrongs  which  they  had  suffered,  not  from 
those  which  they  had  committed,  that  the  existence  of  discontent 
among  them  must  be  inferred.  There  were  libels,  no  doubt,  and 
prophecies,  and  rumors,  and  suspicions;  strange  grounds  for  a  law 
inflicting  capital  penalties,  ex  post  facto,  on  a  large  body  of  men.  .  .  . 

Eight  years  later,  the  bull  of  Pius  deposing  Elizabeth,  produced 
a  third  law.  This  law,  to  which  alone,  as  we  conceive,  the  defence 
now  under  our  consideration  can  apply,  provides  that  if  any  Cath- 
olic shall  convert  a  Protestant  to  the  Romish  church,  they  shall 
both  suffer  death  as  for  high  treason.  .  .  . 

In  the  first  place,  the  arguments  which  are  urged  in  favor  of 
Elizabeth  apply  with  much  greater  force  to  the  case  of  her  sister 
Mary.  The  Catholics  did  not,  at  the  time  of  Elizabeth's  accession, 
rise  in  arms  to  seat  a  Pretender  on  her  throne.  But  before  Mary 
had  given  or  could  give  provocation,  the  most  distinguished  Prot- 
estants attempted  to  set  aside  her  rights  in  favor  of  the  Lady  Jane. 
That  attempt,  and  the  subsequent  insurrection  of  Wyatt,  furnished 
at  least  as  good  a  plea  for  the  burning  of  Protestants  as  the  con- 
spiracies against  Elizabeth  furnish  for  the  hanging  and  embowel- 
ling  of  Papists. 

The  fact  is  that  both  pleas  are  worthless  alike.  If  such  argu- 
ments are  to  pass  current,  it  will  be  easy  to  prove  that  there  never 
was  such  a  thing  as  religious  persecution  since  the  creation.  For 
there  never  was  a  religious  persecution  in  which  some  odious  crime 
was  not,  justly  or  unjustly,  said  to  be  obviously  deducible  from 
the  doctrines  of  the  persecuted  party.  We  might  say  that  the 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  301 

Caesars  did  not  persecute  the  Christians.  .  .  .  We  might  say  that 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  was  intended  to  extirpate,  not  a 
religious  sect,  but  a  political  party.  .  .  . 

The  measures  of  Queen  Elizabeth  were  dictated,  not  by  political 
necessity,  but  by  the  spirit  of  persecution.     Because 

(A)  The  Catholics  were  not  necessarily  likely  to  commit  treason. 

For 

I.  Men  do  not  follow  their  beliefs  to  their  logical  conclusions. 
II.  Men  are  not  always  likely  to  do  what  they  believe  it  right 
to  do. 

(B)  The  law  prohibiting  the  celebration  of  Romish  rites  was  not 

politically  necessary.     For 
I.  It  was  passed  before  hostility  had  been  shown. 

(C)  The  law  touching  the  oath  of  supremacy  was  unnecessary. 

For 

I.   It  was  based  purely  on  suspicion. 

(Z>)   The  law  touching  the  conversion  of  a  Protestant  to  Catholi- 
cism was  unnecessary.     For 

I.  It  punished  not  crime,  but  the  holding  of  doctrines  presum- 
ably tending  to  crime. 

A  Prescription  for  Poverty. 

Whatever  the  nature  of  the  nostrum  in  modern  therapeutics 
proposed  for  the  workingman,  the  best  of  all,  if  he  did  but  know 
it,  is  good,  old-fashioned,  honest  industry.  This  has  been  seen  to 
work  well  in  almost  every  instance  where  it  has  been  honestly  and 
persistently  tried ;  and  while,  I  believe,  no  other  remedy  can  be 
found  to  supersede  this,  I  make  bold  to  offer  one,  not  as  a  panacea, 
but  as  a  sort  of  helpmeet  for  the  manly  virtues  of  well-applied 
industry.  If  the  methods  of  the  past  are  to  be  taken  as  the  only 
preventives  of  poverty,  we  may  well  conclude  the  evil  is  incurable, 
and  the  case  of  the  poor  man  is  indeed  a  hopeless  one. 

Let  us  look  at  one  or  two  of  these,  the  most  promising  and 
prominent  in  the  list  of  prescriptions.  And  first  of  all,  our  public 
charities.  Far  from  wishing  to  underrate  or  undervalue  them,  I 
give  them  the  full  benefit  of  all  they  have  achieved,  and  even  of  all 
their  founders  have  designed  to  achieve  by  them.  And  yet  it  is 


302  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

obvious,  they  are  incapable,  in  the  nature  of  things,  of  reaching 
more  than  an  infinitesimal  portion  of  the  suffering  classes.  The 
great  bulk  of  these  classes  are  beyond  their  reach  or  relief. 

Xext,  let  us  examine  for  a  moment,  what  has  always  been  con- 
sidered a  wholesale  remedy  for  the  evils  of  poverty  not  only  by 
many  philanthropists  and  publicists,  but  by  a  large  number  of  the 
sufferers  themselves.  I  mean  a  forced  and  more  equal  distribution 
of  property  among  all  classes  of  citizens.  In  ancient  times  such  a 
remedy  was  sought  through  the  instrumentality  of  laws  having 
this  object  directly  in  view.  But  how  far  short  these  laws  fell  of 
accomplishing  it,  the  most  superficial  knowledge  of  history  will 
acquaint  us.  The  resulting  advantages  were  more  than  out- 
weighed by  the  resulting  calamities. 

In  more  recent  things,  while  a  few  persons  are  found  advocating 
the  passage  of  agrarian  and  sumptuary  laws,  most  of  those  who 
base  similar  reforms  upon  similar  means,  look  for  them  through 
the  intervention  of  "labor  strikes,"  "trades-unions,"  commercial 
conventions  and  other  organized  efforts,  having  for  their  end  con- 
cessions and  forced  contributions  from  the  wealthier  to  the  poorer 
classes.  Even  if  it  were  possible  of  attainment,  such  is  the  struc- 
ture of  human  society,  or,  we  might  better  say,  such  is  the  condi- 
tion of  poor  human  nature  itself,  that  the  forced  equilibrium  of 
wealth,  if  once  effected,  could  be  maintained  only  for  the  briefest 
interval.  For,  by  the  law  of  individual  and  industrial  activity, 
this  wealth  would  flow  back  into  its  accustomed  channels  whence 
it  had  been  but  momentarily  diverted. 

Nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  any  compulsory  division  of 
wealth  or  even  an  approximation  to  it  through  the  machinery  of 
labor  strikes  and  similar  devices,  even  if  it  could  be  brought  about, 
is  a  delusion  and  a  snare,  and  at  best  would  serve  only  as  a  tempo- 
rary make-shift,  having  no  lasting  effect,  and  seriously  jeopardiz- 
ing the  interests  of  all  concerned. 

The  great  fundamental  objection  to  all  such  methods  of  reform 
is  that  they  do  not  strike  at  the  root  of  the  evil,  or  rather  they  at- 
tack it  at  the  wrong  point,  and  hence  their  gain,  if  there  is  any, 
is  only  provisional  and  temporary. 

Now  the  one  thing  needful  to  elevate  the  condition  of  the 
laboring  man,  and  rescue  him  from  abject  want  or  something 
worse,  is  that  while  his  wages  shall  be  sufficient  to  purchase  the 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  303 

necessaries  of  life,  he  shall  not  be  obliged  to  expend  them 
all  for  these,  but  shall  have  surplus  enough  to  procure  him 
some  of  the  comforts  and  luxuries  as  well,  and  iii  addition  to  this 
to  accumulate  a  capital,  little  by  little,  which  with  proper  in- 
dustry and  economy  shall  place  him  in  a  comparatively  indepen- 
dent position. 

But  this  independence  he  cannot  achieve,  as  we  have  seen, 
through  any  of  the  avenues  hitherto  opened  to  him.  He  must 
therefore  try  some  other ;  and  if  it  can  be  found  that  the  same 
end  which  is  sought  in  vain  by  means  of  an  increase  of  wages  can 
be  secured  by  another  method  which,  if  not  so  direct,  is  neverthe- 
less more  efficacious  and  more  compensatory  to  the  laboring  classes, 
a  method  that  will  not  disturb  the  existing  relations  between 
labor  and  capital,  and  which,  when  acquiesced  in,  will  allay  the 
heaving  billows  of  strife  and  discontent  that  so  often  agitate  the 
surface  of  society,  whenever  questions  of  this  nature  come  up  for 
settlement  —  if,  I  say,  such  a  substitute  can  be  found,  it  would 
seem  as  if  we  were  approaching  a  solution  of  the  gravest  social 
problem  of  the  day. 

Such  a  solution,  I  contend,  may  be  found,  and  almost  all  the 
evils  of  poverty  may  be  warded  off,  by  reducing  to  their  first  cost 
all  those  commodities  that  enter  into  the  necessary  daily  subsist- 
ence of  mankind ;  in  other  words,  by  a  reduction  to  first  cost  of  the 
necessaries  of  life. 

If  such  a  result  can  be  brought  about,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
effect  will  be  similar  to  that  of  an  enhancement  of  the  wages  of 
labor.  For  it  matters  not  to  the  workingman  whether  the  ad- 
vantage he  realizes  comes  directly  from  obtaining  more  money 
for  his  labor,  or  from  paying  out  less  money  for  what  he 
is  obliged  to  buy  to  support  himself  and  his  family.  Thus, 
if  his  weekly  necessary  expenses  amount  to  fifteen  dollars,  and 
he  cannot  provide  for  himself  and  family  for  less,  he  will  just 
as  surely  gain  five  dollars  per  week  by  being  able  to  reduce  his  ex- 
penses to  ten  dollars,  as  he  would  if  he  were  to  exact  from  his  em- 
ployer the  additional  sum  of  five  dollars  in  wages.  In  the  one 
case  he  gains  by  saving  what  in  the  other  case  he  would  gain  by 
accretion  or  accumulation.  And,  further,  if  it  can  be  shown  that 
these  gains  would  be  far  greater  under  the  system  I  advocate  than 
would  be  possible  under  the  most  successful  strike  for  higher 


304  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

wages,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  it  should  not  be  adopted,  pro- 
vided it  be  compatible  with  justice,  order,  and  more  important 
than  all,  with  that  higher  destiny  and  condition  of  the  human 
family,  which  are  foreshadowed  by  the  march  of  improvement, 
and  by  those  laws,  scarcely  perceptible  in  their  operation  until 
after  long  periods,  which  dominate  and  regulate  social  progress. 

That  all  the  necessaries  of  life  ought  to  come  to  the  consumer 
freighted  with  no  more  profit,  cost,  or  expense  than  such  as  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  their  production,  seems,  at  first  blush,  like  a 
visionary  proposition,  and  one  incapable  of  practical  application. 
But  viewed  in  the  light  of  reason  and  common  sense,  it  will  be 
found,  I  think,  that  no  such  character  necessarily  attaches  to  it, 
and  that  this  reproach  upon  it  is  due  more  to  habit  and  prejudice 
than  to  any  well  grounded  apprehension. 

What  I  call  the  necessaries  of  life  are  the  air  we  breathe, 
wholesome  food  and  water,  and  sufficient  fuel  and  clothing  to 
keep  us  warm.  All  of  these  are  essentially  natural  rights,  just  as 
much,  and  in  the  same  sense,  as  life  itself,  because  without  them 
life  itself  is  unendurable  and  impossible.  That  such  is  the  charac- 
ter of  the  first  in  the  list,  namely,  the  air  we  breathe,  no  one  will 
deny ;  and  to  preserve  it  its  purity,  and  to  guard  against  any  in- 
fringement or  monopoly  of  the  right  of  using  it,  statutes  have 
been  framed  in  all  civilized  communities.  The  same  remarks  will 
apply  in  a  more  limited  sense,  to  the  water  we  drink.  People  are 
prohibited,  under  severe  penalties,  from  contaminating  it,  or  turn- 
ing it  from  its  natural  channels,  or  putting  any  restrictions  on  its 
free  use  and  enjoyment;  and  when,  as  in  large  towns  and  cities  a 
sufficient  healthful  supply  cannot  be  obtained  without  expense, 
that  expense  is  reduced  to  first  cost  to  all  consumers. 

A  more  pregnant  and  pertinent  example  than  this  of  the  prac- 
tical application  and  utility  of  the  doctrine  here  advocated  cannot 
well  be  imagined.  Here  is  one  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  not  more 
important  or  conducive  to  our  well-being  than  the  rest,  but  fur- 
nished to  us  more  prodigally  and  with  less  labor  than  any  of  the 
rest,  with  the  exception  of  the  atmosphere,  hedged  round  with  re- 
strictive legislation,  but  by  the  general  consent  of  mankind  made 
absolutely  free,  so  far  as  possible,  to  the  whole  community.  Where- 
ever  the  individual  consumer  is  incapable  of  procuring  it,  the  mu- 
nicipal authorities  or  other  corporate  bodies  furnish  it,  at  first  by 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  305 

the  rudest  and  simplest  contrivances,  then  through  the  agency  of 
reservoirs  and  aqueducts,  so  that  no  single  family  or  inhabitant 
shall  be  deprived  of  it,  and  always  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  the  ex- 
pense of  bringing  it  within  their  reach.  JHence,  nothing  is  cheaper 
than  the  water  supply  of  cities,  and  no  one  ever  thinks  of  com- 
plaining of  it  as  an  unnecessary  burden.  But  suppose  it  came  to 
us  saddled  with  the  same  charges  as  our  flour,  or  bacon,  or  fuel, 
how  prompt  would  be  the  instinct  to  murmur  and  rebel  against  it. 
First  would  come  the  charges,  dictated  by  some  arbitrary  standard 
of  value,  of  whomsoever  should  happen  to  be  the  owner  of  the 
supply,  next  those  of  the  purchaser  from  the  owner,  who  might 
be  called  the  wholesale  dealer,  next  those  of  the  speculator  in  the 
article,  and  lastly  the  profits  of  the  retail  dealer,  who  dispenses  it 
to  his  customers  —  thus  passing  from  the  original  source  of  supply 
through  a  multitude  of  hands,  and  burdened  with  an  accumulation 
of  profits  and  expenses  that  would  double  and  treble  the  cost  to 
the  consumer,  as  compared  with  its  present  mode  of  distribution 
and  delivery.  And  yet  so  far  as  our  natural  right  to  them  is  con- 
cerned, our  food  and  our  fuel  stand  on  precisely  the  same  founda- 
tion as  the  -water  we  drink. 

The  only  difference  between  the  rationale  of  our  water  supply 
and  of  our  food  supply  is  that  nature,  being  more  lavish  of  the  one 
than  of  the  other,  has  furnished  it  ready-made  to  our  hands,  so  to 
speak,  while  the  other  has  to  be  submitted  to  certain  industrial 
processes  in  its  production,  before  it  can  be  accommodated  to  our 
use.  But  this  difference  being  accidental  only  as  to  their  origin  or 
production,  ought  not  to  make  any  difference  with  respect  to  their 
distribution  and  supply ;  and  provided  a  proper  equivalent  is  paid 
to  those  who  produce  our  food,  the  difference  in  question  entirely 
disappears,  and  thus  the  article  of  food  and  the  article  of  beverage 
stand  on  the  same  footing,  and  no  legal  or  other  discrimination 
ought  to  be  made  in  favor  of  either. 

To  illustrate  the  argument  a  little  further  :  suppose  nature  sup- 
plied us  the  means  for  satisfying  our  hunger  with  the  same  prod- 
igal hand,  and  with  as  little  expense  as  she  supplies  the  means  for 
satisfying  our  thirst,  or,  in  other  words,  suppose  the  prime  cost  of 
the  one  were  no  greater  than  the  prime  cost  of  the  other,  there 
would  then  be  no  good  and  valid  reason  why  the  distribution  and 
supply  of  food  and  drink  to  each  individual  should  not  be  con- 


306  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

ducted  on  the  same  principle  of  cheapness  and  economy.  Let 
those  who  raise  our  food  receive  for  it  a  remuneration  sufficient  to 
pay  them  a  reasonable  profit  for  their  industry,  and  the  two  com- 
modities become  identical  in  respect  to  every  succeeding  step  in 
the  progress  of  reaching  the  consumer;  and  thereafter  every  pref- 
erence or  protection  shown  to  the«one  more  than  to  the  other, 
every  hindrance  or  obstruction  thrown  in  the  way  of  the  one  more 
than  the  other,  would  be  an  unjust  and  odious  discrimination, 
palpably  inconsistent,  and  involving  the  most  serious  consequences 
to  the  well-being  of  the  poorer  classes. 

What  has  been  said  touching  our  social  claim  to  protection 
against  hunger  will  apply  equally  well  to  that  of  protecting  our- 
selves against  cold.  As  sacred  rights,  which  every  one  who  comes 
into  the  world  inherits  with  the  very  breath  of  life  itself,  they 
ought  to  come  to  us  unshackled  from  every  interference  with  their 
free  use  and  enjoyment.  Every  limitation  upon  them  is  a  hard- 
ship which  every  good  government  will  make  as  light  as  possible, 
especially  seeing  that  it  falls  with  the  heaviest  hand  upon  those 
members  of  the  community  who  are  the  least  able  to  bear  it,  and 
who,  at  the  same  time,  contribute  the  largest  share  of  the  public 
expenses.  If  the  State  undertakes  to  guard  against  the  infliction 
of  heavy  burdens  upon  any  one  of  our  natural  rights,  there  is  no 
reason  why  it  should  withold  protection  from  the  rest.  If  light, 
air,  and  water  are  permitted  to  enter  our  dwellings,  free  from  exac- 
tions, why  should  not  the  same  privilege  be  awarded  to  food  and 
fuel,  which  are  equally  necessary  to  existence,  and  clothed  with 
the  same  natural  sanctions  ?  The  only  answer  to  this  is  that  in 
most  civilized  countries,  nature  has  supplied  a  sufficiency  or  a 
superfluity  of  the  one  class  of  gifts,  without  the  application  of  arti- 
ficial means  to  make  them  available  for  use.  But  does  this  afford 
any  sufficient  pretext  for  inflicting  a  variety  of  burdens  upon  the 
other  class,  before  they  reach  the  consumer?  On  the  contrary, 
ought  they  not  to  stand  exempt  from  further  taxation,  provided  a 
reasonable  profit  is  first  paid  the  producer  ?  It  seems  to  me  that 
the  simple  statement  of  such  a  proposition  as  this  is  all  the  argu- 
ment needed  to  sustain  it. 

The  next  question  that  arises  for  consideration  is:  In  what  way, 
or  by  what  machinery,  shall  the  present  cost  of  necessaries  be  re- 
duced and  regulated  as  between  the  producer  and  consumer? 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  307 

How  shall  the  large  army  of  middle-men  and  "  operators  "  who  im* 
pose  the  bulk  of  the  burdens  on  the  consumer,  be  got  rid  of? 
Without  assuming  or  insisting  on  legislation  or  State  interference 
as  the  only  or  best  remedy,  or  as  a  full  solution  of  the  difficulty,  it 
is  a  curious  coincidence,  and  one  that  may  go  far  towards  solving 
the  question,  that  the  hand  of  legislative  reform  has  already  been 
laid  upon  a  kindred  subject,  and  is  at  present  stirring  up  society 
to  its  depths.  Both  in  Europe  and  America,  the  position  has  been 
assumed  that  the  different  methods  of  public  transportation  may 
be  coerced  into  such  a  reduction  of  rates  both  for  travel  and  traffic 
as  is  consistent  with  the  general  welfare  of  the  people.  The  appli- 
cation of  this  principle  with  respect  to  railroads  has  become  a 
familiar  part  of  the  history  of  the  times :  and  a  notable  instance 
of  its  farther  extension  is  to  be  observed  in  the  great  State  of  New 
York,  while  by  popular  vote  the  whole  system  of  tolls  upon  their 
canals  has  been  abolished,  and  these  great  and  important  highways 
have  been  declared  to  be  open  to  the  free  and  unrestricted  use  of 
commerce,  without  any  expense  to  the  people  other  than  what  is 
required  to  keep  them  in  a  proper  state  of  repair,  and  this  expense 
to  be  maintained  by  general  taxation. 

Now  canals  and  railroads  and  other  public  modes  of  transporta- 
tion, while  among  the  most  important  factors  in  modern  civiliza- 
tion, are  not  essential  to  its  spread  and  existence.  More  than  this, 
they  are  not  an  essential  ingredient  in  our  happiness,  and  so  far 
from  having  the  characteristics  of  a  "  necessary  "  institution,  they 
might  be  blotted  out  entirely,  without  destroying  our  happiness. 
Nevertheless,  they  are  so  interwoven  with  our  present  social  needs 
and  interests  that  their  loss  or  absence  would  be  a  serious  injury  ; 
and  hence  they  may  properly  be  classed,  along  with  artificial  light, 
domestic  animals,  and  other  objects  of  similar  utility,  in  the  cata- 
logue of  quasi  necessaries. 

It  would  be  a  curious  subject  of  thought  and  one  rich  in  mate- 
rial for  reflection  to  the  speculative  philosopher  to  inquire  how  it 
happens  that  the  remedy  here  prescribed  for  the  pains  of  poverty 
among  the  working  classes  has  been  taken  up  by  political  reformers, 
and  applied  successfully  to  a  grievance  not  to  be  compared  in  the 
severity  with  those  I  have  been  considering,  and  one  that,  in  nat- 
ural order  of  things,  ought  to  be  postponed  to  the  others.  For  it  re- 
quires little  sagacity  to  see  that  it  is  of  far  greater  consequence,  in 


308  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

the  beginning,  to  mankind  at  large  to  have  the  necessaries  of  life 
cheapened  to  them  in  their  production,  distribution,  and  supply, 
than  in  the  single  article  of  their  transportation,  though  all  oi 
these  ends  are  important ;  and  that  it  were  better,  all  things  con- 
sidered, to  commence  the  process  of  reform  by  cutting  down  or 
cutting  off  the  exorbitant  charges  that  are  added  to  the  first  cost 
of  production,  since  a  much  greater  saving  would  accrue  to  the 
community  at  large  and  particularly  to  the  poor  man  than  is  pos- 
sible under  any  system  of  retrenchment  in  freight  rates. 

The  reason  why  this  anomaly  and  first  step  in  legislation  have 
taken  the  direction  they  have,  is  doubtless  due,  in  great  part,  to  the 
fact  that  the  enormous  fortunes  made  at  the  public  expense,  of  late 
years,  by  the  railroad  companies,  and  others  engaged  in  the  business 
of  transportation,  being  more  conspicuous  examples  of  individual 
selfishness  and  rapacity  than  the  fortunes  almost  as  large  and  more 
numerous  acquired  by  speculators  in  the  necessaries  of  life,  have 
earlier  directed  the  attention  of  the  public  to  this  subject.  We 
have  become  accustomed,  from  long  endurance  of  it,  to  the  older 
and  greater  abuse,  which  has  extended  its  ramifications  into  all  the 
avenues  of  trade  and  commerce,  while  the  later  one  has  been  lifted 
into  sudden  prominence  by  the  dazzling  prizes  it  has  held  out  to 
the  comparatively  few  who  have  seized  upon  them;  just  as  in 
cases  of  insidious  attacks  and  prostration  by  disease,  while  the  most 
fatal  symptoms  have  been  overlooked,  diagnosis  has  been  directed  to 
those  only  which  appear  on  the  surface. 

If  therefore  no  other  modus  operandi  for  meeting  the  difficulty 
before  us  was  practicable  or  available,  we  have  one  ready  made  to 
hand  in  the  means  devised  for  checking  exorbitant  charges  upon 
the  public  lines  of  transportation.  Whether,  as  before  observed, 
ttiis  is  the  wisest  or  the  best  method,  being  compulsory,  it  is  prob- 
ably the  surest  and  most  effectual.  For  no  amount  of  persuasion 
or  of  appeals  to  the  reason  or  the  conscience  of  those  engaged  in 
trafficking  in  the  necessaries  of  life  is  going  to  make  them  abate  one 
jot  or  tittle  of  their  demands.  Then  they  can  plead  in  their  favor 
prescriptive  right  and  the  consent  of  the  ages.  The  pound  of  flesh 
has  been  so  long  exacted,  they  have  lost  sight  and  thought  of  the 
blood.  And  if  restrictive  legislation  is  necessary  to  thwart  the 
combinations  and  conspiracies  of  railroad  companies,  how  much 
more  necessary  to  thwart  the  mercenary  designs  of  those  who 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  309 

traffic  in  the  very  life-blood  of  the  people ;  can  it  be  said,  with 
any  show  of  reason,  that  the  knife  of  reform  is  needed  in  the  one 
case,  and  not  in  the  other  ?  What  is  the  little  fraction  of  expense 
saved  by  a  reduction  in  railroad  rates,  compared  with  that  immense 
average  that  would  be  saved  to  the  poor  man,  provided  the  ex- 
penses of  his  daily  living  were  cut  down  to  prime  cost?  Is  it  not 
of  far  more  consequence  to  him  that  the  staples  himself  and  family 
are  obliged  to  use,  in  order  to  keep  soul  and  body  together,  should 
be  exempt  from  the  heavy  market  rates  they  have  to  pay  for  them, 
by  reason  of  their  passing  through  so  many  different  hands,  than 
that  a  slight  additional  cost  should  be  added  to  their  transporta- 
tion ?  And  the  classes  engaged  in  this  vital  traffic  —  what  better 
right  have  they  to  claim  exemption  from  legal  restraints  and  regu- 
lations than  those  who  would,  if  they  could,  impose  even  a  heavier 
tariff  upon  this  transportation,  or  those  who  would,  if  they  could, 
make  merchandise  out  of  the  very  air  we  breathe  or  the  water  we 
drink? 

It  may  be  urged,  with  a  considerable  show  of  reason,  that  the 
remedy  herein  advocated  does  not  properly  fall  within  the  scope  of 
governmental  control;  and  if  the  views  of  many  sociologists, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  the  honored  name  of  Herbert 
Spencer  —  a  name  which,  in  my  opinion,  stands  first  among  the 
great  thinkers  of  the  century  —  were  to  be  taken  as  final  on  the 
subject,  some  different  agency  from  that  which  belongs  to  the 
functions  of  a  legislature  would  have  to  be  devised,  to  carry  out 
the  reform  in  question.  But  in  answer  to  this,  I  submit  that  all 
or  nearly  all  that  has  been  said  or  written  against  the  protective 
and  paternal  spirit  of  legislation  applies  almost  exclusively  to 
governments  founded  on  a  different  principle  from  ours  —  to 
governments  where  there  is  a  ruling  class  as  well  as  a  ruled,  to  be 
provided  for,  and  where  the  main  spring  of  action  is  far  from  being 
the  welfare  of  the  people  at  large.  Popular  governments  through 
individual  representatives  are,  in  theory  at  least,  like  a  large  cor- 
poration acting  through  its  agents ;  and  though  in  practice  the 
principal  is  often  misrepresented  and  the  delegated  authority 
abused,  yet  the  ends  of  society,  in  any  given  age,  are  as  well  car- 
ried out  by  such  governments  as  they  can  be,  under  the  existing 
limitations  of  men's  reason,  conscience,  and  condition;  since,  to 
quote  the  high  authority  I  have  just  mentioned,  "  Out  of  no  form 


310  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

of  government  can  be  expected  a  capacity  and  a  rectitude  greatei 
than  those  of  the  society  out  of  which  it  grows."  Hence  the  power 
to  inaugurate  great  and  needed  reforms  in  a  republic  —  reforms 
looking  to  a  wide  departure  from  past  expedients  and  experiments, 
may  be  safely  intrusted  to  the  hands  of  the  legislature.  If  it  cannot 
be  lodged  there,  it  would  seem  as  if  it  cannot  be  lodged  anywhere ; 
it  would  seem  as  if  the  reforms,  though  ever  so  imperatively 
demanded  by  the  people,  and  crying  aloud  for  recognition  and 
accomplishment,  would  be  like  the  voice  of  one  crying  out  in  the 
wilderness.  —  William  Brackett. 

Introduction :  — 

(A)  Specifics  for  poverty  have  hitherto  beeu  failures. 

I.   Public  charities  reach  but  a  small  number. 
II.   Enforced  equality  of  property-distribution  has  been  tried 

and  has  failed. 

(a)    In  ancient  times  by  agrarian  laws. 
(6)    In  modern  times  through  strikes  or  conciliation. 

(B)  Any  gain  through  these  specifics  is  only  partial,  provisional, 

and  temporary. 

(C)  The  one  thing  needful  is  that  wages  should  be  elevated  above 

the  bare  subsistence  point 

Brief  Proper :  — 

Proposition:  —  The  prescription  for  poverty  consists  in  reduc- 
ing to  first  cost  the  necessaries  of  subsistence,  which  would  be 
equivalent  to  raising  wages. 

(A  )   This  is  already  true  of  municipalized  water-supply,  light,  and 
air,  the  first  three  necessaries. 

(B)  It  should  be  made  true  of  food,  fuel,  and  clothing,  the  other 

necessaries  of  life.     For 
I.   These  are  essential  rights  like  the  others. 
II.   Like  the  others  these  should  enter  our  homes  free  of  un- 
necessary exactions. 

(C)  If  necessary,  compulsory  legislation  should  be  employed  to 

get  rid  of  middle-men  and  operators.     For 
I.   An  exact  parallel  in  successful  legislation  is  seen  in  the 
transportation  laws. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  311 

II.  Laws  regulating  production  and  distribution  are  vastly 
more  essential  to  the  protection  of  natural  rights  than 
are  transportation  laws. 

Conclusion :  — 

(A)    The  objection  that  the  remedy  suggested  does  not  fall  within 

the  scope  of  governmental  control  fails.     For 
I.   It  is  inconsistent  with  the  theory  of  popular  government. 

4.  —  (Section  95)  —  Organize  the  following  notes  into  a 
logical  brief.     Then  make  a  brief  in  refutation. 

The  city  is  the  best  place  for  a  college. 

1.  There  are  plenty  of  temptations  everywhere.     All  depends  on 

individual  character. 

2.  Living  in  a  city  is  an  education  in  itself. 

3.  Citizenship  can  be  learned  only  in  a  city. 

4.  Most  students  will    have   to   live   in  cities  after  they  leave 

college. 

5.  An  education  in  engineering,  law,  or  medicine,  cannot  be  had 

in  a  country  college. 

6.  The  city  college  cannot  isolate  itself  from  the  world. 

7.  The  country  college  offers  temptations  as  well  as  the  city 

college. 

8.  The  country  college  offers  fewer  chances  for  self-support  than 

the  city  affords. 

9.  City  students  learn  more  of  manners,  society,  industrial  strife, 

politics. 

10.  The  professors  in  a  city  college  are  closer  to  practical  life. 

11.  The  city  college  is  not  more  expensive. 

12.  The  worst  lawlessness  is  not  in  the  city  college. 

13.  An  engineering  student  must  have  a  city  for  his  laboratory. 

14.  There  are  lectures,  eminent  preachers,  fine  music,  and  good 

architecture  in  the  city. 

5.  —  (Section  95)  —  Determine  the  proposition  in  the  fol- 
lowing and  organize  the  material  into  a  brief. 

Who  was  Junius?    An  English  scholar  writing  to  The  London 
Standard  points  out  that  the   Franciscan  theory  of  Junius  has 


312  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

received  a  great  shock,  since  no  proof  whatever  in  support  of  it  has 
been  found  either  in  the  newly  published  Francis  Letters  or  in  the 
autobiography  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  that  appeared  in  1898. 
"Junius's  correspondence  with  Wilkes,"  says  this  writer,  "estab- 
lishes indubitably  that  he  was  .  .  .  a  man  of  '  mature  age.'  Dr. 
Mason  Good,  who  was  the  editor  of  the  first  edition  of  Junius 
containing  his  private  letters,  was  also  of  the  opinion  that  Junius 
'  must  have  attained  an  age  which  would  allow  him  without  vanity  to 
boast  an  ample  experience  and  knowledge  of  the  world.'  In  Pri- 
vate Letters,  No.  44,  Junius  solemnly  asserted  he  had  *  a  long  ex- 
perience of  the  world.'  In  No.  77,  Junius  refused  Wilkes's  invita- 
tion to  the  Lord  Mayor's  ball,  because  '  my  age  and  my  figure  would 
do  but  little  credit  to  my  partner.'  Under  the  nom  de  guerre  of 
'Amicus  Curiae,'  Junius  declared  that  he  was  an  old  reader  of 
political  controversy,  and  that  he  remembered  'the  Walpolean 
battles.'  But  how,  then,  can  Philip  Francis  have  been  Junius? 
'  The  Walpolean  battles  '  that  Junius  declared  he  remembered  be- 
gan long  before  Francis  was  born,  and  must  have  completely  termi- 
nated when  Francis  was  an  infant  of  three  years  of  age.  I  have 
advocated  in  The  Westminster  Review  and  The  New  Century  Review 
the  theory  that  Lord  Chesterfield  was  Junius,  not  only  because  of 
his  advanced  age,  but  also  because  Chesterfield  was  at  that  date  a 
most  practised  controversialist.  Previously  to  the  appearance  of 
the  Letters  of  Junius,  in  1760  and  in  1768,  Chesterfield  used  a  char- 
acteristic phrase  of  Junius,  *  Hospital  of  Incurables '  (Letter  68, 
ad  fin.),  both  in  public  and  private  writings.  The  theory  that 
Chesterfield  was  Junius  seems  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  Junius 
initialled  his  private  letters  'C.' 

"  The  theory  is  strictly  consistent  also  with  what  is  universally 
admitted,  that  Junius  was  a  man  of  aflQuence.  It  is  also  consistent 
with  the  many  passages  in  which  Junius  hints,  if  he  does  not  in 
terms  assert,  that  he  possessed  rank  as  well  as  fortune.  In  Letter 
54,  Junius,  addressing  'The  Printer  of  The  Public  Advertiser,' 
declared  that, '  You,  sir,  may  be  satisfied  that  my  rank  and  fortune 
place  me  above  a  common  bribe.' " 

An  interesting  part  of  this  letter  is  the  statement  at  the  end : 
"I  have  received  unsolicited  information  to  the  effect  that  the 
secret  of  the  authorship  is  still  being  kept  in  a  certain  titled  fam- 
ily, who  will  be  equally  bound  at  a  future  date  to  divulge  it.  But 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  313 

I  have  to  say,  like  Pitt,  that  my  information  is  quite  inconsistent 
with  Francis  having  been  Junius."  —  New  York  Tribune,  May  5, 
1907. 

6.  —  (Section  95)  —  Organize  the  following  material  into  a 
brief.  Then  make  a  brief  in  refutation. 

You  are  surprised  to  learn  that  I  have  not  a  high  opinion  of  Mr. 
Jefferson,  and  I  am  surprised  at  your  surprise.  I  am  certain  that 
I  never  wrote  a  line,  and  that  I  never  in  Parliament,  in  conversa- 
tion, or  even  on  the  hustings  —  a  place  where  it  is  the  fashion  to 
court  the  populace  —  uttered  a  word  indicating  an  opinion  that  the 
supreme  authority  in  a  state  ought  to  be  intrusted  to  the  majority 
of  citizens  told  by  the  head;  in  other  words,  to  the  poorest  and 
most  ignorant  part  of  society.  I  have  long  been  convinced  that 
institutions  purely  democratic  must,  sooner  or  later,  destroy  liberty 
or  civilization,  or  both.  In  Europe,  where  the  population  is  dense, 
the  effect  of  such  institutions  would  be  almost  instantaneous. 
What  happened  lately  in  France  is  an  example.  In  1848  a  pure 
democracy  was  established  there.  During  a  short  time  there  was 
reason  to  expect  a  general  spoliation,  a  national  bankruptcy,  a  new 
partition  of  the  soil,  a  maximum  of  prices,  a  ruinous  load  of  taxa- 
tion laid  on  the  rich  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  poor  in  idle- 
ness. Such  a  system  would,  in  twenty  years,  have  made  France  as 
poor  and  barbarous  as  the  France  of  the  Carlovingians.  Happily, 
the  danger  was  averted,  and  now  there  is  a  despotism,  a  silent 
tribune,  an  enslaved  press.  Liberty  is  gone,  but  civilization  has 
been  saved.  I  have  not  the  smallest  doubt  that  if  we  had  a  purely 
democratic  government  here  the  effect  would  be  the  same.  Either 
the  poor  would  plunder  the  rich,  and  civilization  would  perish ;  or 
order  and  prosperity  would  be  saved  by  a  strong  military  govern- 
ment, and  liberty  would  perish.  You  may  think  that  your  country 
enjoys  an  exemption  from  these  evils.  I  will  frankly  own  to  you 
that  I  am  of  a  very  different  opinion.  Your  fate  I  believe  to  be 
certain,  though  it  is  deferred  by  a  physical  cause.  As  long  as  you 
have  a  boundless  extent  of  fertile  and  unoccupied  land,  your  labor- 
ing population  will  be  far  more  at  ease  than  the  laboring  popula- 
tion of  the  Old  World,  and,  while  that  is  the  case,  the  Jefferson 
politics  may  continue  to  exist  without  causing  any  fatal  calamity. 
But  the  time  will  come  when  New  England  will  be  as  thickly 


314  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

peopled  as  Old  England.  Wages  will  be  as  low,  and  will  fluctuate 
as  much  with  you  as  with  us.  You  will  have  your  Manchesters 
and  Birminghams,  and  in  those  Manchesters  and  Birminghams 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  artisans  will  assuredly  be  sometimes  out 
of  work.  Then  your  institutions  will  be  fairly  brought  to  the  test. 
Distress  everywhere  makes  the  laborer  mutinous  and  discontented, 
and  inclines  him  to  listen  with  eagerness  to  agitators  who  tell  him 
that  it  is  a  monstrous  iniquity  that  one  man  should  have  a  million, 
while  another  cannot  get  a  full  meal.  In  bad  years  there  is  plenty 
of  grumbling  here,  and  sometimes  a  little  rioting.  But  it  matters 
little.  For  here  the  sufferers  are  not  the  rulers.  The  supreme  power 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  class,  numerous  indeed,  but  select ;  of  an  educated 
class ;  of  a  class  which  is,  and  knows  itself  to  be,  deeply  interested  in 
the  security  of  property  and  the  maintenance  of  order.  Accordingly, 
the  malcontents  are  firmly  yet  gently  restrained.  The  bad  time 
is  gone  over  without  robbing  the  wealthy  to  relieve  the  indigent. 
The  springs  of  national  prosperity  soon  begin  to  flow  again ;  work 
is  plentiful,  wages  rise,  and  all  is  tranquillity  and  cheerfulness.  I 
have  seen  England  pass  three  or  four  times  through  such  critical 
seasons  as  I  have  described.  Through  such  seasons  the  United 
States  will  have  to  pass  in  the  course  of  the  next  century,  if  not  of 
this.  How  will  you  pass  through  them  ?  I  heartily  wish  you  a 
good  deliverance.  But  my  reason  and  my  wishes  are  at  war,  and 
I  cannot  help  foreboding  the  worst.  It  is  quite  plain  that  your 
government  will  never  be  able  to  restrain  a  distressed  and  discon- 
tented majority.  For  with  you  the  majority  is  the  government, 
and  has  the  rich,  who  are  always  a  minority,  absolutely  at  its 
mercy.  The  day  will  come  when  in  the  State  of  New  York,  a 
multitude  of  people,  none  of  whom  has  had  more  than  half  a 
breakfast,  or  expects  to  have  more  than  half  a  dinner,  will  choose 
a  Legislature.  Is  it  possible  to  doubt  what  sort  of  a  Legislature 
will  be  chosen  ?  On  one  side  is  a  statesman  preaching  patience, 
respect  for  vested  rights,  strict  observance  of  public  faith.  On  the 
other  is  a  demagogue  ranting  about  the  tyranny  of  capitalists  and 
usurers,  and  asking  why  anybody  should  be  permitted  to  drink 
champagne  and  to  ride  in  a  carriage,  while  thousands  of  honest 
folks  are  in  want  of  necessaries.  Which  of  the  two  candidates  is 
likely  to  be  preferred  by  a  working-man  who  hears  his  children  cry 
for  more  bread  ?  I  seriously  apprehend  that  you  will,  in  some 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  315 

such  season  of  adversity  as  I  have  described,  do  things  which  will 
prevent  prosperity  from  returning ;  that  you  will  act  like  people 
who  should  in  a  year  of  scarcity  devour  all  the  seed-corn,  and  thus 
make  the  next  a  year  not  of  scarcity,  but  of  absolute  famine. 
There  will  be,  I  fear,  spoliation.  The  spoliation  will  increase  the 
distress.  The  distress  will  produce  fresh  spoliation.  There  is 
nothing  to  stop  you.  Your  constitution  is  all  sail  and  no  anchor. 
As  I  said  before,  when  a  society  has  entered  on  this  downward 
progress,  either  civilization  or  liberty  must  perish.  Either  some 
Caesar  or  Napoleon  will  seize  the  reins  of  government  with  a 
strong  hand,  or  your  republic  will  be  as  fearfully  plundered  and 
laid  waste  by  barbarians  in  the  twentieth  century  as  the  Roman 
Empire  was  in  the  fifth ;  with  this  difference,  that  the  Huns  and 
Vandals  who  ravaged  the  Roman  Empire  came  from  without,  and 
that  your  Huns  and  Vandals  will  have  been  engendered  within 
your  own  country  by  your  own  institutions.  —  Lord  Macaulay,  in 
Trevelyan's  Life  and  Letters  of  Macaulay,  vol.  2,  pp.  408-410. 
7.  —  (Section  95)  —  Criticise  the  following  briefs:  — 
Standing  armies  are  a  real  benefit  to  a  nation.  Because 

(A)  They  inculcate  national  pride.     For 

I.   Men,  like  brutes,  glory  in  their  might.     For 
(a)  Combat  determines  the  fittest.     For 

1.  England  conquered  the  Boer. 

2.  Russia  triumphed  over  the  Pole. 

(B)  They  improve  the  morals  of  communities.     For 

I.   The  army  is  a  refuge  for  an  undesirable  class.     For 
(a)  New  York  raised  a  regiment  of  bowery  "  bouncers  " 
and  "  wharf  rats." 

(C)  They  are  a  commercial  blessing.     For 
I.    Armies  consume  home  products. 

H.   Armies  remove  that  awful  surplus  from  the  public  treasury. 
III.   Armies  consume  the  many  home  contributions  that  would 
otherwise  fatten  foreign  missionaries. 

Labor-saving  machines  do  not  drive  men  out  of  work. 
Introduction  : 
1.   When  there  were  no  such  machines 

(a)  Poor  people  were  deprived  of  many  luxuries. 

(6)  The  laborer  was  more  like  a  slave. 


316  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

Discussion :  — 

1.  When  machines  were  introduced 
(a)  The  product  became  cheaper. 
(6)  More  skilled  men  were  required. 

(c)  On  account  of  its  cheapness  the  product  was  used  for  many 
other  purposes. 

2.  Men  receive  better  pay  for  their  work  and  work  shorter  hours, 
(a)  They  are  no  longer  slaves,  but  mechanics. 

Conclusion  :  — 

It  takes  more  men  to  build  and  run  the  machinery  than  it  took 
laborers  before  the  machines  were  introduced. 

Should  cities  own  their  own  street  railways  ? 

Introduction :  — 

I.  The  following  statements  show  that  our  system  of  street  rail- 
ways should  be  improved :  — 
(.4)   There  is  an  insufficient  number  of  cars  run  in  most 

cities. 

(/?)    As  a  result  passengers  often  have  to  stand. 
(C)   Business  in  the  crowded  portions  of  cities  is  impaired. 
II.  These  facts  prove  that  cities  should  be  well  provided  for  in 

the  way  of  street  cars. 
(4)   The  lack  of  cars  hinders  city  growth,  inasmuch  as 

(1)  Cities  grow  very  rapidly  in  their  suburbs. 

(2)  These  suburbs  cannot  grow  without  a  good  line 

of  cars. 

III.  Since  in  order  to  prosper,  cities  must  have  an  up-to-date 
system  of  railways,  the  question  is  whether  the  cities  them- 
selves should  own  their  own  lines,  or  leave  their  control  to 
private  corporations. 

Brief  Proper :  — 

Cities  should  own  their  own  street  railways.     For 
I.   It  would  not  be  an  experiment.     For 

(.4)  Municipal  ownership  has  been  in  force  not  only  in 
European  countries  but  throughout  the  United  States 
for  half  a  century  at  least. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  317 

II.   It  has  been  successful  in  other  countries.     For 

(A)  In  the  majority  of  cases  in  Great  Britain  it  has  bene- 

fited not  only  the  body  of  ratepayers,  but  also  the 
tramway  employees. 

(5)  It  has  proved  efficient,  economical,  and  satisfactory  to 
the  people. 

(C)  In  London  municipalization  has  rapidly  extended. 

(D)  In  Glasgow  it  has  bettered  the  condition  of  the  laborer 

inasmuch  as 

1.  It  has  increased  facilities. 

2.  It  has  bettered  service. 

3.  It  has  raised  wages  and  lowered  fares. 

III.  Municipal  ownership  lowers  fares.     For 

(J)  In  controlling  its  own  system  of  transportation,  the  city 
has  its  own  interests  at  heart,  and  consequently  can 
afford  to  reduce  the  fares. 

(B)  When  Glasgow  took  over  the  tramways,  fares  were  re- 

duced one-third  and  reductions  have  continued  until 
now  the  fare  is  one-half  the  average  fare  collected  by 
the  private  company  half  a  dozen  years  ago. 

(C)  It  aims  at  service  for  all. 

IV.  It  would  improve  the  condition  of  the  people.     For 

(4)   The  profits  of  a  public  enterprise  go  to  the  people  and 

not  into  the  pockets  of  a  few. 
(B)   It  would  relieve  communities  from  corrupting  relations 

with  men  of  wealth.     For 

1.  Under  public  operation  they  would  have  no  interests 

at  stake  except  as  taxpayers. 

2.  As  taxpayers  they  would  desire  efficient  administra- 

tion. 
V.   It  would  purify  the  government.     For 

(A)  It  would  stamp  out  public  corruption. 

(B)  It  would  produce  a  more  democratic  spirit.     For 

1.  All  would  work  together  to  make  it  a  success. 

2.  All  would  strive  for  the  public  safety. 

3.  More  impartiality  would  be  shown  in  the  treatment 

of  passengers. 

(C)  It  would  indicate  a  common  aim.     For 
1.   All  would  aim  for  better  service. 


318  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

Refutation  :  — 

I.   It  is  asserted  that  municipal  ownership  is  a  failure  in  Euro- 
pean cities,  but  this  is  not  true.     For 

(A)   Statistics  show  that  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Glas- 
gow, and  the  most  important  countries  it  has  been 
highly  successful. 
(/?)   In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  one  hundred  and  forty-two 

municipalities  own  their  own  street  car  lines. 
n.   It  does  not  increase  the  debt  of  a  community.     For 

(X)   People  would  patronize  a  public  enterprise  more  liber- 
ally than  a  private  one.     For 

1.  It  would  be  concerned  with  their  interests. 

2.  It  would  cause  wealth  to  be  more  evenly  distributed. 

For 

(a)   It  would  go  to  the  public  good  and  not  into  the 
pockets  of  a  few. 

III.  It  does  not  stultify  enterprise.     For 
(A )   It  promotes  ambition.     For 

1.  It  provides  better  service  for  all. 

2.  It  keeps  pace  with  the  times. 

IV.  It  would  not  place  control  in  the  hands  of  the  city  council. 

For 
(A)   Corruption  exists  only  where  the  means  of  temptation 

exist. 

(Z?)   The  municipal  council  would  become  largely  an  execu- 
tive body. 
(C)    It  would  not  have  in  its  control  valuable  rights  to  grant 

away.     For 

1.   There  would  be  nobody  to  bribe  it. 
V.   It  would  not  weaken  the  condition  of  the  city.     For 

(A)  It  would  produce  better  service. 

(B)  It  would  lower  rates,  and  at  the  same  time  raise  wages. 

(C)  It  would  regulate  working  hours  according  to  a  just 

standard. 
(Z>)   It  would  purify  the  government  in  every  respect. 

Conclusion :  — 

Since  municipal  ownership  does  not  lower  wages  and  raise  taxes, 
and  since  it  would  improve  the  condition  of  the  people  and  purifv 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  319 

our  governments ;  and  since  the  objections  that  it  has  been  a  fail- 
ure in  Europe,  that  it  would  raise  the  debt  of  a  community,  would 
stultify  enterprise,  and  place  control  in  the  hands  of  the  city  coun- 
cil are  not  true,  cities  should  own  their  own  street  railways. 

8.  —  (Sections  96-106)  —  What  kinds   of   arguments   are 
used  in  the  following  briefs? 

Judas  was  not  a  villain.     Because 

(A)    His  conduct  was  inconsistent  with  that  of  such  a  character. 
For 
I.  Money,  the  only  motive  alleged,  could  not  have  been  the 

reason  for  his  act.     For 
(a)   As  holder  of  the  common  purse  he   might   have 

stolen  much,  but  did  not. 

(6)    The  bribe  (thirty  pieces)  was  too  small  in  amount, 
(c)    He  flung  back  the  bribe  after  all. 
(ZJ)    His  previous  character  must  have  been  good.     For 

I.   The  Lord  had  selected  him  as  one  of  the  twelve. 
II.  Nothing  is  recorded  of  his  previous  life  to  warrant  sus- 
picion. 

III.   The  Lord's  statement  at  the  Last  Supper  was  a  state- 
ment of  fact,  not  an  accusation. 

(C)   The  motive  for  betraying  his  Master  was  not  that  of  a  vil- 
lain.   For 
I.   He  expected  to  compel  his  Lord  to  reveal  his  omnipotent 

power  when  arrested. 
II.   He  hanged  himself,  when  his  plan  failed,  from  remorse 

at  its  failure.     For 
(a)   It  could  not  have  been  from  fear  of  man's  law. 

For 
1.   He  had  acted  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the 

land. 

(6)    It  could  not  have  been  from  fear  of  divine  ven- 
geance.    For 

1.  Hanging  himself  would  put  him  immediately 

in  the  way  of  receiving  it. 

2.  Hanging  himself  committed  him  unreservedly 

to  the  divine  mercy. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

3.   Hanging  himself  was  an  acknowledgment  of  an 
awful  mistake  of  judgment,  not  of  guilt. 

The  break  between  North  and  South  was  caused  by 
federal  acts.  Because 

(A)  By  federal  acts  the  South  was  excluded  from  access  to  the 

common  territory.     For 

I.   By  the  Ordinance  of  1787  it  was  excluded  from  the  Old 

Northwest. 
II.   By  the   Missouri  Compromise  it  was  excluded  from 

territory  north  of  36°  30'. 

III.  By  the  Oregon  Bill  it  was  excluded  from  that  terri- 

tory. 

IV.  By  the  Mexican  Treaty  it  was  excluded  from  territory 

thus  acquired. 

(B)  Federal  tariff  and  immigration   bills  were  universally  dic- 

tated by  northern  interests  and  were  hostile  to  the  South. 

(C)  Federal,  judicial,   and  executive  decisions  were  uniformly 

favorable  to  the  North  and  hurtful  to  the  South. 

The  product  of  an  author  s  thought  should  receive  inter- 
national protection.     Because 
{A)    All  property  should  receive  international   protection.     For 

1.  Property  protection  is  a  fundamental  law  of  society.     For 
(a)    A  man  has  the  right  to  protect  his  own  property. 

(6)    He  is  entitled  to  protection  from  his  government. 

2.  Some  property  now  receives  international  protection. 

(B)  The  product  of  an  author's  thought  is  property.     For 

1.  It  has  value  as  the  result  of  labor. 

2.  Every  government  recognizes  it  as  such,  of  its  own  citizens. 

(C)  Other  than  international  protection  is  insufficient. 

1.   The  example  of  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  shows  this  to  be  so. 
•_'.    The  example  of  Bancroft's  United  States  proves  it. 

9.  —  (Sections  96-106)  —  What  kind  of  reasoning  or  argu- 
ment is  used  in  the  following  ? 

(a)  Great  writers  make  poor  husbands.  Think  of  Burns, 
Byron,  Carlyle,  and  Shelley. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  321 

(6)  I  fear  a  storm.  Last  night  the  moon  had  a  ring  around  it, 
and  to-night  there  is  no  moon. 

(c)   Of  course  he  is  a  student.     Didn't  you  notice  his  hat? 

(rf)  The  man  sitting  next  to  me  is  having  a  hard  time  answer- 
ing the  examination  questions.  He  bites  his  pencil ;  he  does  not 
write  ;  he  looks  steadily  at  the  floor. 

(e)  The  government  already  exercises  a  censorship  over  plays 
with  a  view  to  morality.  Why  should  it  not  oversee  the  construc- 
tion of  novels  with  a  view  to  artistic  construction? 

(/)  An  engineer  declares  that  a  certain  bridge  must  come 
down. 

(</)    A  merchant  inspects  a  lot  of  goods  and  later  buys  them. 

(h)    A  doctor  is  called  in. 

(i)    A  drover  inspects  and  later  buys  a  lot  of  cattle. 

(y)  A  critic  decides  the  personal  character  of  Shakespeare  from 
his  works. 

(fc)  A  student  has  written  a  poor  examination  paper  and  proves 
that  he  has  received  bad  news  from  home  just  before  examination 
began,  and  that  his  work  during  the  term  has  been  good. 

10.  —  (Sections  96-106)  —  What  kind  of  reasoning  is  in- 
volved in  each  of  the  following  ? 

(a)  Soude'ry  on  his  way  to  Paris  with  his  sister  was  planning 
with  her  a  new  novel.  Stopping  for  the  night  at  Aix,  they  went  on 
with  the  discussion  in  their  room.  Should  they  stab  the  hero  or 
poison  him?  One  of  the  inn  servants,  overhearing,  denounced 
them  to  the  police.  The  Scude'rys  were  arrested  and  imprisoned  — 
and  of  course  acquitted. 

(b)  Not  so  very  long  ago  a  safe  expert  was  summoned  from  this 
city  all  the  way  to  Mexico,  with  his  expenses  paid,  in  order  to 
open  a  time  lock  safe  in  which  the  mechanism  had  stopped.  He 
travelled  for  six  days  and  then  went  straight  to  the  office  in  Mexico 
City  whither  he  had  been  summoned.  He  walked  once  around  the 
safe,  ascertained  the  character  of  the  lock,  and  then  rigged  up  a 
tripod  and  had  the  safe  swung  clear  of  the  floor.  He  gave  it  a 


322  A88IGNMH\TS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

gentle  push,  the  clock  began  to  tick,  and  the  expert  travelled  back 
to  this  city  richer  by  a  handsome  fee. 

(c)  King   Richard   Lion-heart,  wrecked  off  the  coast  of  Dal- 
matia  on  his  return  from  Palestine,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Leopold 
of  Austria,  whom  he  had  mortally  offended  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Henry  II  bought  him  of  Leopold,  and  kept  him  prisoner  in  the 
castle  of  Trifels,  for  Richard  was  heir  to   the   English  throne. 
Blondel  the  minstrel,  his  favorite,  went  in  quest  of  him  from  castle 
to  castle  all  over  Europe.     At  last,  on  some  vague  surmise,  stopping 
at  the  foot  of  the  fortress  rock  of  Trifels,  Blondel  began  to  sing  a 
lay  that  they  two  had  composed  together.     From  within  a  voice 
finished  the  couplet.     Richard  was  found.     Not  long  afterward  he 
was  ransomed. 

(d)  A  humble  beginning  predicts  unusual  success  in  life.    Jay 
Gould  was  a  book  agent.      Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  printer. 
Hill  began  as  s  roustabout.     Lincoln  was  a  rail-splitter.    John 
Wanamaker  began  life  at  $1.25  a  week.     Edison  was  a  telegraph 
operator.     Rockefeller  worked  in  a  machine  shop. 

11. —  (Sections  101-106)  —  Name  the  arguments  used  in 
the  following.  Reduce  to  syllogistic  form.  Suggest  a 
method  of  refutation. 

(a)  At  one  time  during  the  civil  war  there  was  great  dissatis- 
faction throughout  the  north  with  certain  generals  in  the  union 
army.  Many  of  Lincoln's  admirers  were  urging  him  to  make 
radical  changes.  But  the  President's  ever  ready  argument  was, 
"  It  is  not  wise  to  swap  horses  in  the  middle  of  the  stream." 

(1))  In  Yorkshire,  England,  some  years  ago  a  traveller,  having 
in  his  pocket  certain  marked  coins,  was  attacked  in  the  early 
morning,  murdered,  and  robbed.  Later  in  the  day  coins  of  this 
peculiar  stamp  were  found  on  the  person  of  a  servant  at  an  inn  in 
the  vicinity.  This  servant  was  unable  to  account  for  his  posses- 
sion of  the  money  and  on  this  evidence  was  tried,  convicted,  and 
hanged. 

(c)  "  But  how  do  you  know,"  Aunt  Susanna  suspiciously  asked, 
"  that  he  is  such  a  artist  when,  as  he  says,  he  might  mebbe  be  a 
sharper  V  " 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  323 

"  I  can  tell  a  good  bit  by  guess.  He  looks  it  so.  It's  plain  'at 
him  is  one  of  these  here  drawin'  fellers.  He  has  such  a  painty 
beard  and  his  hair  is  near  as  long  as  us  Amish  wear  ourn." 

(d)  "  Caesar  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  I.  his  Cromwell,  and  George 
III.  may  profit  by  their  example." 

(6)  The  lioness  nurseth  her  whelps,  the  raven  cherisheth  her 
birds,  the  viper  her  brood,  and  shall  a  woman  cast  away  her  babe  ? 

(f )  It  can  safely  be  predicted  that  should  the  foolish  "  anti-tip  " 
law  be  enacted  it  will  remain  a  dead  letter  and  soon  be  utterly 
forgotten .     However,  the  tipping  practice  is  not  a  crime,  and  the 
criminal  courts  can  employ  their  time  much  more  profitably  dis- 
posing of  murderers  and  highwaymen  of  which  there  is  a  super- 
abundance than  by  wasting  it  on  tipping  cases. 

(g)  I  have  always  found  that  the  visits  of  bees  are  necessary 
for  the  fertilization  of  some  kinds  of  clover.     For  instance,  twenty 
heads  of  Dutch  clover  yielded  2290  seeds,  but  twenty  other  heads 
protected  from  bees  yielded  not  one.     Again,  800  heads  of  red 
clover  produced  2700  seeds,  but  the  same   number  of  protected 
heads  produced  not  a  single  seed. 

(h)  No  man  has  ever  in  this  country  accumulated  by  his  own 
labor  as  much  as  a  half  million  dollars  in  a  whole  lifetime;  no 
man  can  do  it  now.  Yet  you  see  individuals  owning  ten  millions, 
twenty  millions,  even  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  each.  You 
see  corporations  owning  as  much  or  more.  These  vast  fortunes 
were  not  earned  by  the  labor  of  those  who  own  them  ;  they  were 
given  to  those  who  own  them  by  legislation,  by  the  enactment  of 
laws  which  so  operated  as  to  give  to  the  few  riches  without  labor, 
and  this  is  important  to  the  many  who  do  labor,  because  every 
dollar  so  given  by  legislation  to  the  few  is  a  dollar  that  some  other 
man's  labor  has  created,  and  a  dollar  that  properly  and  naturally 
belongs  to  the  man  who  made  it.  Therefore,  such  legislation  is 
important  to  the  laborer  and  the  producer,  and  it  is  important 
to  the  laborer  or  producer  whether  he  call  himself  a  Democrat  or 
a  Republican,  for  the  fruits  of  Republican  labor  as  well  as  the 
fruits  of  Democratic  labor  are  taken  by  legislation  to  swell  the 
fortunes  of  the  trust  managers. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

(i)  Men  who  undertake  considerable  things,  even  in  a  regular 
way  ought  to  give  us  ground  to  presume  ability.  But  the  physi- 
cian of  the  state,  who,  not  satisfied  with  the  cure  of  distempers, 
undertakes  to  regulate  constitutions,  ought  to  show  uncommon 
powers. 

(j)  It  has  become  fashionable  of  late  to  relate  the  small  weak- 
nesses, and  in  some  instances  the  large,  as  seen  in  conspicuous  char- 
acters. Parton  has  given  us  the  unfavorable  side  of  Hamilton ; 
Burr  has  been  a  particular  mark  to  aim  at;  Washington  has  not 
escaped ;  and  we  are  now  to  have  such  a  portraiture  of  Franklin. 

(k)  No  body  can  be  healthful  without  exercise,  neither  natural 
body  nor  politic  ;  and  certainly  to  a  kingdom  or  estate,  a  just  and 
honorable  war  is  true  exercise.  A  civil  war,  indeed,  is  like  the 
heat  of  a  fever,  but  a  foreign  war  is  like  the  heat  of  exercise,  and 
serveth  to  keep  the  body  in  health. 

(1)  They  fired,  for  there  was  nothing  else  to  do  but  fire.  The 
very  way  in  which  they  fired,  a  few  scattering  shots  and  then  a 
volley,  shows  vividly  how  they  waited  and  waited,  loath  to  use 
the  last  force  until  they  were  absolutely  compelled  to  do  so.  Had 
they  not  fired,  no  one  can  say  what  might  have  happened.  We 
can  only  point  to  the  example  of  the  great  strike  in  Pittsburg  in 
1885.  There  the  militia  weakly  hesitated  to  fire,  and  their  hesi- 
tation cost  some  of  them  their  lives  and  lost  them  control  of  the 
city.  They  were  driven  out  by  the  rioters,  and  before  law  and 
order  could  be  restored  by  the  regular  troops  ten  million  dollars' 
worth  of  property  had  been  destroyed  by  pillage  and  arson. 

12.—  (Sections  101,  106}  —  What  fallacy  is  pointed  out 
in  the  following?  How  is  it  refuted? 

(a)  Language,  then,  is  the  spoken  means  whereby  thought  is 
communicated,  and  it  is  only  that.  Language  is  not  thought,  nor 
is  thought  language ;  nor  is  there  a  mysterious  and  indissoluble 
connection  between  the  two,  as  there  is  between  soul  and  body,  so 
that  the  one  cannot  exist  and  manifest  itself  without  the  other. 
There  can  hardly  be  a  greater  and  more  pernicious  error,  in  lin- 
guistics or  in  metaphysics,  than  the  doctrine  that  language  and 
thought  are  identical.  It  is,  unfortunately,  an  error  often  com- 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  325 

mitted,  both  by  linguists  and  by  metaphysicians.  "  Man  speaks 
because  he  thinks"  is  the  dictum  out  of  which  more  than  one 
scholar  has  proceeded  to  develop  his  system  of  linguistic  philoso- 
phy. The  assertion,  indeed,  is  not  only  true ,  but  a  truism ;  no 
one  can  presume  to  claim  that  man  would  speak  if  he  did  not 
think  :  but  no  fair  logical  process  can  derive  any  momentous  con- 
clusions from  so  loose  a  premise.  So  man  would  not  wear  clothes 
if  he  had  not  a  body ;  he  would  not  build  "spinning  mules  and 
jennies  if  cotton  did  not  grow  on  bushes,  or  wool  on  sheep's  backs  : 
yet  the  body  is  more  than  raiment,  nor  do  cotton  bushes  and  sheep 
necessitate  wheels  and  water  power.  The  body  would  be  neither 
comfortable  nor  comely,  if  not  clad ;  cotton  and  wool  would  be  of 
little  use,  but  for  machinery  making  quick  and  cheap  their  con- 
version into  cloth  ;  and,  in  a  truly  analogous  way,  thought  would 
be  awkward,  feeble,  and  indistinct,  without  the  dress,  the  appa- 
ratus, which  is  afforded  it  in  language.  Our  denial  of  the  identity 
of  thought  with  its  expression  does  not  compel  us  to  abate  one 
jot  or  tittle  of  the  exceeding  value  of  speech  to  thought ;  it  only 
puts  that  value  upon  its  proper  basis.  —  Whitney  :  Language  and 
the  Study  of  Language. 

(b)  For  my  part  I  have  never  been  able  to  understand  what  is 
meant  by  a  double  standard  or  double  measure  of  value.  It  seems 
as  absurd  as  to  insist  upon  having  two  yardsticks  of  different 
lengths  or  two  gallons  of  different  dimensions.  If  there  were  two 
standards,  or  measures,  not  equal  in  value,  it  is  evident  that  one 
of  them  must  be  a  false  measure  ;  and  if  they  were  of  equal  value, 
it  is  evident  that  no  matter  what  the  law  might  declare,  there 
would  be  in  fact  but  one  measure,  although  composed  of  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  material. 

—  John  G.  Carlisle  :  Monometallism  or  Bimetallism. 

13.  —  (Sections  101,  106}  —  Can  you  find  any  fault  with 
the  logic  of  the  following  ? 

(a)  Buy  a  ticket  to  the  Charity  Ball;  the  poor  ought  to  be 
relieved. 

(6)  Every  child  should  have  a  regular  allowance  of  pocket- 
money,  so  as  to  learn  the  value  of  money. 


326  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

(c)  There  must  be  some  truth  in  the  old  myths ;  otherwise  it 
would  be  wrong  to  talk  as  we  do  to  children  about  Santa  Claus. 

(d)  A  man  preaching  against  baptism  by  immersion  quoted  the 
verse :  "  And  he  received  his  sight  forthwith  and  arose  and  was 
baptized "  —  and  asked  how  a   man  could   be  immersed  stand- 
ing up. 

(e)  Everybody  should  take  a  course  in  manual  training ;  for 
its  value  is  universally  admitted. 

(/)  Vote  my  party  ticket,  for  the  principles  of  the  party  are 
sound,  for  the  platform  was  written  by  some  of  the  best  men  in 
this  country. 

(g)  You  should  not  patronize  a  private  school,  for  the  public 
schools  are  a  great  blessing. 

(A)  This  measure  should  be  defeated.  It  is  a  new  thing  and 
unheard  of  in  these  parts. 

(i)  Love  of  virtue  is  innate  in  all  men,  otherwise  it  would  not 
be  so  universal  as  it  is. 

(j)  He  did  not  speak  to  me  as  we  passed  :  he  must  be  offended. 

(£)  This  man  must  be  unhealthy ;  for  he  is  not  an  athlete  ;  and 
all  athletes  are  healthy. 

(/)  Ignorance  breeds  crime  because  everybody  knows  that 
many  ignorant  people  are  in  prison. 

(m)  Every  religion  has  some  truth  in  it ;  otherwise  laws  secur- 
ing freedom  of  religious  belief  and  worship  would  never  have  been 
adopted  in  civilized  countries. 

(n)  In  order  to  see  whether  the  execution  of  Charles  was  just, 
we  must  decide  upon  the  conditions  necessary  to  make  his,  or  any 
other,  execution  just.  Certainly  the  first  requirement  is  that  the 
accused  shall  have  voluntarily  committed  a  crime  legally  worthy 
of  death.  .  .  .  The  oppressions  and  tyrannies  of  Charles  cer- 
tainly prepared  the  people  for  war  by  arousing  a  general  bad 
feeling  against  the  king.  He  precipitated  the  war  by  his  own 
rash  deed.  Thus  the  war  was  caused  both  directly  and  indirectly 
by  his  voluntary  acts.  Now  it  will  be  admitted  that  if  any  man 
voluntarily  brings  on  a  fight  with  another  man,  against  the  wish 
of  the  second  man,  and  if  the  first  then  kills  the  second,  he  must 
be  held  guilty  of  murder.  This  is  exactly  what  Charles  did, 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ABGUMENTATION.  327 

except  on  a  larger  scale,  to  those  soldiers  of  Parliament  who  were 
killed  in  the  war.  Therefore,  Charles  committed  murder  —  nay, 
wholesale  murder.  Now  murder  was,  and  is,  a  crime  worthy  of 
death  in  the  eyes  of  the  law.  Thus  the  first  requirement  for  a  just 
execution  was  fulfilled. 

(0)  The  university  should  have  its  medical  department  in 
another  city.  (By  reductio  ad  absurdum.) 

(p)  The  United  States  should  control  the  Panama  Canal. 
Because 

A .  We  must  build  it  or  it  will  not  be  built. 

B.  We  must  extend  our  commerce  in  the  Pacific. 

C.  Our  interests  will  suffer  if  any  other  nation  owns  it. 
(g)  The  situation  of  this  country  is  alarming  enough  to  arouse 

the  attention  of  every  man  who  pretends  to  a  concern  for  the  pub- 
lic welfare.  Appearances  justify  suspicions,  and  when  the  safety 
of  a  nation  is  at  stake,  suspicion  is  a  just  ground  of  inquiry. 

14.  —  (Sections  101,  106)  —  Make  a  brief  and  argument  on 
one  of  the  propositions  in  Appendix  C. 

15.  —  (Sections  101t  106)  —  What  is  the  precise  question 
at  issue  in  each  of  the  following  discussions  ?     Does  one  ar- 
gument touch  the  other  at  any  point  ?     Write  a  refutation 
of  either  one. 

(a)  Why  is  it  that  the  advocates  of  radical  reform  in  the  spell- 
ing of  English  make  so  little  progress  in  securing  the  adoption  of 
a  simpler  and  more  natural  method  ?  It  can  hardly  be  denied  that 
they  have  the  best  of  the  argument,  in  the  somewhat  rare  cases  in 
which  serious  argument  is  attempted  in  support  of  the  present  il- 
logical and  often  whimsical  forms.  The  defence  has  sometimes 
been  based  on  the  obliteration  of  etymological  clews  which  would 
be  the  effect  of  the  adoption  of  a  purely  phonetic  system,  and  this 
is  perhaps  the  argument  which  is  generally  most  relied  on  by  op- 
ponents of  change.  It  is  one  which  appeals  more  powerfully  than 
any  other  to  the  scholarly  classes.  But  it  is  easy  to  show  that  the 
present  orthography  of  our  English  words  is  in  very  many  cases 
utterly  unreliable  and  often  positively  misleading  as  a  guide  to 
their  derivation,  a  fact  which  seriously  weakens,  though  it  does  not 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

by  any  means  destroy  the  force  of  the  etymological  plea.  In  fact, 
in  the  eyes  of  those  who  attach  great  importance  to  derivation,  not 
only  as  a  guide  to  exact  definition  and  usage,  but  as  a  valuable  aid 
in  historical  research,  the  objection  above  noted  would  indicate  the 
necessity  of  a  spelling  reform  of  a  radically  different  Hind,  with  a 
view  to  the  correction  of  the  mistakes  which  have  resulted  from 
the  ignorance  of  early  writers  and  lexicographers.  There  are  of 
course  various  other  objections  with  which  the  advocates  of  pho- 
netic spelling  are  from  time  to  time  confronted,  such  as  the  effect 
which  the  change  they  propose  would  have  in  rendering  the  litera- 
ture of  to-day  and  preceding  centuries  as  unreadable  as  if  written 
in  an  unknown  tongue  to  succeeding  generations. 

But  we  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  stated  —  though  very 
likely  this  is  because  we  have  not  read  extensively  in  regard  to  the 
controversy  —  what  seems  to  us  to  be  without  doubt  the  chief, 
though  perhaps  undefined,  obstacle  to  the  adoption  of  the  reform. 
Is  it  not  the  fact  that  to  readers  the  conception  conveyed  by  the 
written  word  is  formed  through  the  medium  of  the  eye  rather  than 
the  ear,  and  so  is  associated  with  the  form  rather  than  the  sound 
of  the  printed  word  ?  The  weight  of  etymology  as  well  as  logic 
may  be  on  the  side  of  rime,  iland,  etc.  But  none  the  less  the 
mind  which  has  become  accustomed  to  associate  the  ideas  for 
which  the  printed  symbols  stand  with  the  forms  rhyme,  island,  etc., 
will  not,  without  a  distinct  and  troublesome  effort,  learn  to  connect 
those  ideas  with  the  former  as  it  now  does  without  conscious  effort 
with  the  latter.  The  arguments  of  the  spelling  reformers  seem  to 
be  generally  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  chief  use  of  the 
written  forms  is  to  represent  the  sounds  of  the  spoken  language, 
whereas  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  practised  reader  translates  the 
symbols  into  sounds  at  all.  To  him  the  written  or  printed  char- 
acter becomes  the  sign,  not  of  a  sound,  but  of  an  idea.  This  may 
constitute  a  selfish  and  quite  insufficient  reason  for  opposing  a 
change  which  has  so  much  to  be  said  in  its  favor,  but  it  none  the 
less  may  explain  the  fact  that  the  majority  so  doggedly  adhere  to 
the  old  system.  Even  a  scholar  finds  it  a  formidable  task  to  read 
understandingly  an  article  written  according  to  any  of  the  phonetic 
methods.  May  he  not  be  excused  if  he  shrinks  from  the  task  of 
having  to  learn  his  native  language  over  again,  so  far  as  its  use  in 
reading  and  writing  is  concerned?  The  reform  will  no  doubt 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION.  329 

corne  in  time,  but  like  all  linguistic  changes,  it  will  be  by  slow 
and  almost  imperceptible  degrees. 

(b)  The  English  language  is  on  the  way,  as  many  believe,  to 
become  an  international  language.  For  this  destiny  it  is  pecul- 
iarly fitted  by  its  cosmopolitan  vocabulary  and  its  grammatic  sim- 
plicity. It  is  much  easier  to  learn  than  any  highly  inflected 
language  can  be,  and  it  has  the  immense  advantage  over  any 
invented  language  that  it  is  the  organ  of  a  noble  literature  and 
of  a  civilization  already  widely  diffused  in  all  parts  of  the  earth. 
There  is,  however,  a  widespread  and  well-grounded  conviction, 
that  in  its  progress  our  language  is  hampered  by  one  thing  —  its 
intricate  and  disordered  spelling,  which  makes  it  a  puzzle  to  the 
stranger  within  our  gates  and  a  mystery  to  the  stranger  beyond 
the  seas.  English  is  easy  and  infinitely  adaptable;  its  spelling  is 
difficult  and  cumbersome. 

Our  intricate  and  disordered  spelling  also  places  a  direct  bur- 
den upon  every  native  user  of  English.  It  wastes  a  large  part  of 
the  time  and  effort  given  to  the  instruction  of  our  children,  keep- 
ing them,  for  example,  from  one  to  two  years  behind  the  school 
children  of  Germany,  and  condemning  many  of  them  to  alleged 
"  illiteracy  "  all  their  days.  Moreover,  the  printing,  typewriting, 
and  handwriting  of  the  useless  letters  which  encumber  our  spell- 
ing, wastes  every  year  millions  of  dollars,  and  time  and  effort 
worth  millions  more.  If,  then,  the  reasonable  and  gradual  simpli- 
fication of  our  spelling  will  aid  the  spread  of  English,  with  the 
attendant  advancement  of  commerce,  of  democratic  ideals,  and  of 
intellectual  and  political  freedom ;  will  economize  the  time  of  our 
school  children  and  make  their  work  more  efficient ;  and  will  in 
other  ways  economize  both  time  and  money,  is  it  not  a  matter 
which  appeals  to  common  sense,  to  patriotism,  and  to  philanthropy  ? 

Some  of  those  who  would  like  to  see  our  spelling  made  simpler, 
fear  that  this  will  obscure  the  derivation  of  words;  but  all  ety- 
mologists deny  the  statement  and  repudiate  the  argument  Ety- 
mology is  history,  and  is  now  secure  in  innumerable  books.  Some 
object  to  any  change,  not  realizing  that  change  —  much  of  it  sim- 
plification —  has  been  almost  continuous  in  the  history  of  English 
spelling.  We  do  not  print  Shakespeare's  or  Bacon's  words  as  they 
were  written ;  and  surely  no  great  catastrophe  to  English  litera- 


330  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

ture  or  to  the  literary  character  of  the  language  will  have  hap- 
pened if  our  successors  find  —  as  they  certainly  will  —  as  great  or 
greater  differences  between  their  spelling  and  that  of  the  present 
day.  In  familiar  correspondence,  and  in  the  public  prints,  many 
simplified  forms  are  now  used  which  shock  no  one's  nerves,  and  in 
the  most  emotional  poetry  forms  such  as  dropt,  slept,  prest  (Tenny- 
son, Lowell,  Swinburne,  and  other  poets)  are  printed  without  at- 
tracting attention.  In  fact,  it  is  probable  that  if  all  English  words 
were  printed  to-morrow  in  the  simpler  forms  which  they  unques- 
tionably will  bear  a  hundred  years  hence,  it  would  take  a  very 
little  while  for  us  all  to  become  accustomed  to  them.  —  Circular  of 
the  Simplified  Spelling  Board. 

16.  —  (Sections  101,  106)  —  Wherein  is  the  reasoning  of 
the  following  paragraph  defective  ?     Write  a  brief  refutation 
of  it. 

I  will  take  a  step  further  and  say  that  this  boasted  uniformity 
of  the  laws  of  nature,  even  apart  from  miraculous  interferences  is 
very  far  from  being  what  unbelievers  commonly  affirm.  It  is  a 
law  of  nature,  for  instance,  that  water  runs  downhill ;  but  it  ran 
uphill  at  a  terrific  rate  in  Galveston  the  other  day.  It  is  a  law  of 
nature  that  gravitation  draws  everything  toward  the  earth ;  but  it 
causes  water  to  stand  in  perpendicular  columns  in  our  pumps,  and 
it  sends  the  balloon,  which  has  to  be  held  down  with  strong  ropes, 
up  above  the  clouds  when  its  ropes  are  cut  It  is  a  law  of  nature, 
that  what  we  call  cold  contracts  all  substances  affected  by  it ;  but  it 
causes  water  at  the  freezing  point  to  expand.  It  is  a  law  of  nature, 
that  heat  softens  and  expands  objects  that  are  heated;  but  it 
causes  clay  to  harden  and  contract.  Many  such  illustrations  might 
be  given ;  and  if  our  knowledge  of  nature  were  complete,  we  might 
find  that  there  is  no  law  of  the  material  universe  that  does  not 
sometimes  reverse  its  action. 

17.  —  (Sections  101}  106)  —  Complete  the  following  argu- 
ment :  — 

The  military  or  strategic  value  of  a  "naval  position  depends  upon 
its  situation,  upon  its  strength,  and  upon  its  resources.  Of  the 
three,  the  first  is  of  most  consequence,  because  it  results  from  the 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  AEG U MENTATION.  331 

nature  of  things;  whereas  the  two  latter,  when  deficient,  can  be 
artificially  supplied,  in  whole  or  in  part.  Fortifications  remedy 
the  weaknesses  of  a  position,  foresight  accumulates  beforehand  the 
resources  which  nature  does  not  yield  on  the  spot ;  but  it  is  not 
within  the  power  of  man  to  change  the  geographical  situation  of  a 
point  which  lies  outside  the  limit  of  strategic  effect.  It  is  instruc- 
tive, and  yet  apparent  to  the  most  superficial  reading,  to  notice 
how  the  first  Napoleon,  in  commenting  upon  a  region  likely  to  be 
the  scene  of  war,  begins  by  considering  the  most  conspicuous  natural 
features,  and  then  enumerates  the  commanding  positions,  their 
distances  from  each  other,  the  relative  directions,  or,  as  the  sea 
phrase  is,  their  "  bearings,"  and  the  particular  facilities  each  offers 
for  operations  of  war.  This  furnishes  the  ground  plan,  the  skeleton, 
detached  from  confusing  secondary  considerations,  and  from  which 
a  clear  estimate  of  the  decisive  points  can  be  made.  The  number 
of  such  points  varies  greatly,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
region.  In  a  mountainous,  broken  country  they  may  be  very 
many ;  whereas  in  a  plain  devoid  of  natural  obstacles  there  may 
be  few  or  none  save  those  created  by  man.  If  few,  the  value  of 
each  is  necessarily  greater  than  if  many,  and  if  there  be  but 
one  its  importance  is  not  only  unique,  but  extreme  —  measured 
only  by  the  size  of  the  field  over  which  its  unshared  influence 
extends. 

The  sea,  until  it  approaches  the  land,  realizes  the  ideal  of  a  vast 
plain  unbroken  by  obstacles.  On  the  sea,  says  an  eminent  French 
tactician,  there  is  no  field  of  battle  ;  meaning  that  there  is  none  of 
the  natural  conditions  which  determine,  and  often  fetter,  the 
movements  of  the  general.  But  upon  a  plain,  however  flat  and 
monotonous,  causes,  possibly  slight,  determine  the  concentration 
of  population  into  towns  and  villages,  and  the  necessary  communi- 
cations between  the  centres  create  roads.  Where  the  latter  con- 
verge, or  cross,  tenure  confers  command,  depending  for  importance 
upon  the  number  of  routes  thus  meeting  and  upon  their  individual 
value.  It  is  just  so  at  sea.  While  in  itself  the  ocean  opposes  no 
obstacle  to  a  vessel  taking  any  one  of  the  numerous  routes  that 
can  be  traced  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe  between  two  points, 
conditions  of  distance  or  convenience,  of  traffic  or  of  wind,  do 
prescribe  certain  usual  courses.  Where  these  pass  near  an  ocean 
position,  still  more  where  they  use  it,  it  has  an  influence  over  them, 


332  ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 

and  where  several  routes  cross  near  by  that  influence  becomes  very 
great  —  is  commanding. 

Let  us  now  apply  these  considerations  to  the  Hawaiian  group. 

18.  —  Do  you  think  the  following  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the 
effect  of  the  study  of  science  upon  the  human  spirit  ?  If 
not,  state  your  view  precisely,  and  support  it  by  arguments. 

Science  as  it  is  studied  and  taught  by  the  moderns  is  the  death 
of  sentiment  and  of  gentle  illusions.  With  it  the  life  of  the  spirit 
is  straitened.  Everything  is  reduced  to  fixed  rules,  and  even  the 
sublime  beauties  of  Nature  disappear.  It  is  science  that  destroys 
the  marvellous  in  the  arts  as  well  as  faith  in  the  soul.  Science  tells 
us  that  all  is  a  lie,  and  seeks  to  express  everything  in  ciphers  and 
lines,  not  only  the  sea  and  the  land  where  we  are,  but  also  the 
highest  Heaven  where  God  is.  The  wonderful  yearnings  of  the 
soul  are  only  a  kind  of  mystic  ecstasy.  The  very  inspiration  of 
the  poets  is  a  delusion.  The  heart  is  a  sponge,  the  brain  only  a 
nest  of  maggots.  —  Galdds  :  Dona  Perfecta. 


APPENDIX   A. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM. 
Isolated  Paragraphs. 

1.  —  It  is  the  making  of  the  wax  that  costs  with  the  bee.     As 
with  the  poet,  the  form,  the  receptacle,  gives  him  more  trouble 
than  the  sweet  that  fills  it,  though,  to  be  sure,  there  is  always  more 
or  less  empty  comb  in  both  cases.     The  honey  he  can  have  for  the 
gathering,  but  the  wax  he  must  make  himself  —  must  evolve  from 
his  own  inner  consciousness.     When  wax  is  to  be  made  the  wax- 
makers  fill  themselves  with  honey  and  retire  into  their  chamber 
for  private  meditation  ;  it  is  like  some  solemn  religious  rite ;  they 
take  hold  of  hands,  or  hook  themselves  together  in  long  lines  that 
hang  in  festoons  from  the  top  of  the  hive,  and  wait  for  the  miracle 
to  transpire.     After  about  twenty-four  hours  their  patience  is  re- 
warded, the  honey  is  turned  into  wax,  minute  scales  of  which  are 
secreted  from  between  the  rings  of  the  abdomen  of  each  bee ;  this 
is  taken  off  and  from  it  the  comb  is  built  up.    It  is  calculated  that 
about  twenty-five  pounds  of  honey  are  used  in  elaborating  one 
pound  of  comb,  to  say  nothing  of  the  time  that  is  lost.     Hence  the 
importance,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  of  a  recent  device  by 
which  the  honey  is  extracted  and  the  comb  returned  intact  to  the 
bees.     But  honey  without  the  comb  is  the  perfume  without  the 
rose,  —  it  is  sweet  merely,  and  soon  degenerates  into  candy.     Half 
the  delectableness  is  in  breaking  down  these  frail  and  exquisite 
walls  yourself,  and  tasting  the  nectar  before  it  has  lost  its  freshness 
by  the  contact  with  the  air.     Then  the  comb  is  a  sort  of  shield  or 
foil  that  prevents  the  tongue  from  being  overwhelmed  by  the 
shock  of  the  sweet.  —  Burroughs  :  Birds  and  Bees. 

2.  —  Some  time,  wandering  in  a  thinned  wood,  you  may  have 
happened  upon  an  old  vine,  the  seed  of  which  had  long  ago  been 

333 


334  ISOLATED   PARAGRAPHS 

dropped  and  had  sprouted  in  an  open  spot  where  there  was  no 
timber.  Every  May,  in  response  to  Nature's  joyful  bidding  that 
it  yet  shall  rise,  the  vine  has  loosed  the  thousand  tendrils  of  its 
hope,  those  long,  green,  delicate  fingers  searching  the  empty  air. 
Every  December  you  may  see  these  turned  stiff  and  brown,  and 
wound  about  themselves  like  spirals  or  knotted  like  the  claw  of  a 
frozen  bird.  Year  after  year  the  vine  has  grown  only  at  the  head, 
remaining  empty-handed  ;  and  the  head  itself,  not  being  lifted 
always  higher  by  anything  the  hands  have  seized,  has  but  moved 
hither  and  thither,  back  and  forth,  like  the  head  of  a  wounded 
snake  in  a  path.  Thus  every  summer  you  may  see  the  vine,  fallen 
back  and  coiled  upon  itself,  and  piled  up  before  you  like  a  low 
green  mound,  its  own  tomb;  in  winter  a  black  heap,  its  own  ruins. 
So,  it  often  is  with  the  poorest,  who  live  on  at  the  head,  remaining 
empty-handed ;  fallen  in  and  coiled  back  upon  themselves,  their 
own  inescapable  tombs,  their  own  unavertible  ruins.  —  Allen  :  The 
Choir  Invisible. 

3.  —  The  old  conditions  of  travel  and  the  new  conditions  of 
most  travel  of  to-day  are  precisely  opposite.     For  in  old  travel,  as 
on  horseback  or  on    foot   now,  you  saw  the  country  while  you 
travelled.     Many  of  your  stopping-places  were  for  rest,  or  because 
night  had  fallen,  and  you  could  see  nothing  at  night.     Under  the 
old  system,  therefore,  an  intelligent  traveller  might  keep  in  mo- 
tion from  day  to  day,  slowly,  indeed,  but  seeing  something  all  the 
time,  and  learning  what  the  country  was  through  which  he  passed 
by  talk  with  the  people.     But  in  the  new  system,  he  is  shut  up 
with  his  party  and  a  good  many  other  parties  in  a  tight  box  with 
glass  windows,  and  whirled  on  through  dust  if  it  be  dusty,  or  rain 
if  it  be  rainy,  under  arrangements  which  make  it  impossible  to 
converse  with  the  people  of  the  country,  and  almost  impossible  to 
see  what  that  country  is.  —  E.  E.  Hale  :  How  to  Do  It. 

4.  —  The  vast  results  obtained  by  science  are  won  by  no  mysti- 
cal faculties,  by  no  mental  processes,  other  than  those  which  are 
practised  by  every  one  of  us  in  the  humblest  and  meanest  affairs 
of  life.    A  detective  policeman  discovers  a  burglar  from  the  marks 
made  by  his  shoe,  by  a  mental  process  identical  with  that  by  which 
Cuvier  restored  the  extinct  animals  of  Montmartre  from  fragments 
of  their  bones.     Nor  does  that  process  of  induction  and  deduction. 


FOB  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  335 

by  which  a  lady,  finding  a  stain  of  a  particular  kind  upon  her 
dress,  concludes  that  somebody  has  upset  the  inkstand  thereon, 
differ  in  any  way  from  that  by  which  Adams  and  Leverrier  dis- 
covered a  new  planet.  The  man  of  science,  in  fact,  simply  uses 
with  scrupulous  exactness  the  methods  which  we  all  habitu- 
ally and  at  every  moment  use  carelessly.  —  Huxley:  Lay  Sermons. 

5.  —  After  a  while  she  ventured  to  the  top  of  the  gangway 
stairs,  and  stood  there,  looking  at  the  novel  sights  of  the  harbor, 
in  the  red  sunset  light,  which  rose  slowly  from  the  hulls  and  lower 
spars  of  the  shipping,  and  kindled  the  tips  of  the  high-shooting 
masts  with  a  quickly  fading  splendor.     A  delicate  flush  responded 
in  the  east,  and  rose  to  meet  the  denser  crimson  of  the  west;  a 
few   clouds,   incomparably  light  and   diaphanous,  bathed   them- 
selves in  the  glow.     It  was  a  summer  sunset,  portending  for  the 
land  a  morrow  of  great  heat.     But  cool  airs  crept  along  the  water, 
and  the  ferry-boats,  thrust  shuttlewise  back  and  forth  between 
either  shore,  made  a  refreshing  sound  as  they  crushed  a  broad 
course  to  foam  with  their  paddles.     People  were  pulling  about  in 
small  boats ;  from  some  the  gay  cries  and  laughter  of  young  girls 
struck  sharply  along  the  tide.    The  noise  of  the  quiescent  city 
came  off  in  a  sort  of  dull  moan.     The  lamps  began  to  twinkle  in 
the  windows  and  the  streets  on  shore  ;  the  lanterns  of  the  ships  at 
anchor  in  the  stream  showed  redder  and  redder  as  the  twilight 
fell.     The  homesickness  began  to  mount  from  Lydia's  heart  in  a 
choking  lump  to  her  throat ;  for  one  must  be  very  happy  to  en- 
dure the  sights  and  sounds  of  the  summer  evening  anywhere. 
She  had  to  shield  her  eyes  from  the  brilliancy  of  the  kerosene 
light  when  she  went  below  into  the  cabin. —  Howells:    Lady  of 
the  Aroostook. 

6.  —  I  am  told  that  the  matchless  writing  of  Macaulay  is  nowadays 
jeered  at.     I  am  not  sure  whether  it  is  allowed  to  be  "  style  " ;  I 
am  not  sure  whether  it  is  allowed  to  be  "  literature."    1  have  now 
and  then  made  some  efforts  to  find  out  what  "  style  "  and  "  litera- 
ture "  are.    I  find  that  they  are   something  very  different   from 
Macaulay,    something    very   different    from   Arnold,  something, 
I  might   go  on  to  say,  very  different  from   Gibbon.      I    have 
tried    the    writings    of    a   notable    "  stylist,"    the    great    living 
model,   I    am   told,  of   style.     Now,  did   anybody  ever  have  to 


336  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

read  over  a  sentence  of  Macaulay,  or  of  Arnold,  or  even  of  the 
artificial  Gibbon,  a  second  time  simply  in  order  to  find  out  its 
meaning  ?  But  I  found  that  in  my  "  stylist "  a  plain  man  could 
not  make  out  the  meaning  of  a  single  sentence  without  greater 
pains  than  are  needed  to  follow  an  imperfectly  known  foreign  lan- 
guage. A  story  seemed  to  be  told ;  but  there  was  no  making  out 
whether  the  story  was  meant  to  be  fact  or  fiction.  I  will  not  say 
that  I  have  imitated  Macaulay's  style,  because  I  gather  from  what 
I  saw  of  my  "  stylist "  that  Macaulay  has  no  "  style."  I  have  not 
consciously  imitated  his  manner  of  writing;  that  is,  I  have  not 
tried  to  write  like  him.  Yet  Macaulay's  manner  of  writing  has 
been  in  the  highest  measure  an  influence  with  me.  I  have  learned 
from  him  to  say  what  I  mean  and  to  mean  what  I  say  —  to  cut  my 
sentences  short  —  not  to  be  afraid  of  repeating  the  same  word,  not 
to  talk  about  "  the  former  "  and  "  the  latter,"  but  to  call  men  and 
things  whatever  they  are.  I  have  learned  from  him  to  say  what  I 
have  to  say  in  the  purest,  the  cleanest,  the  strongest,  aye,  and  the 
most  rhythmical  English  that  I  can  muster.  If  my  "  stylist  "  is 
"style"  and  Lord  Macaulay  is  not  "style," a  man  who  wishes  to 
understand  will  say  something  more  than  "  scepe  stylum  vertas  ";  he 
will  say  good-by  to  "style  "  and  stick  to  plain  English. 

—  Edward  A.  Freeman,  Forum,  April,  1892. 

7.  — I  have  before  alluded  to  the  strange  and  vain  supposition, 
that  the  original  conception  of  Gothic  architecture  had  been  de- 
rived from  vegetation,  —  from  the  symmetry  of  avenues,  and  the 
interlacing  of  branches.  It  is  a  supposition  which  never  could 
have  existed  for  a  moment  in  the  mind  of  any  person  acquainted 
with  early  Gothic ;  but,  however  idle  as  a  theory,  it  is  most  valu- 
able as  a  testimony  to  the  character  of  the  perfected  style.  It  is 
precisely  because  the  reverse  of  this  theory  is  the  fact,  because  the 
Gothic  did  not  arise  out  of,  but  developed  itself  into,  a  resemblance 
to  vegetation,  that  this  resemblance  is  so  instructive  as  an  indica- 
tion of  the  temper  of  the  builders.  It  was  no  chance  suggestion  of 
the  form  of  an  arch  from  the  bending  of  a  bough,  but  a  gradual 
and  continual  discovery  of  a  beauty  in  natural  forms  which  could 
be  more  and  more  perfectly  transferred  into  those  of  stone,  that  in- 
fluenced at  once  the  heart  of  the  people,  and  the  form  of  the  edi- 
fice. The  Gothic  architecture  arose  in  massy  and  mountainous 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM.  337 

strength,  axe-hewn,  and  iron-bound,  block  heaved  upon  block  by 
the  monk's  enthusiasm  and  the  soldier's  force;  and  cramped  and 
stanchioned  into  such  weight  of  grisly  wall,  as  might  bury  the 
anchoret  in  darkness,  and  beat  back  the  utmost  storm  of  battle, 
suffering  but  by  the  same  narrow  crosslet  the  passing  of  the  sun- 
beam, or  of  the  arrow.  Gradually,  as  that  monkish  enthusiasm 
became  more  thoughtful,  and  as  the  sound  of  war  became  more 
and  more  intermittent  beyond  the  gates  of  the  convent  or  the  keep, 
the  stony  pillar  grew  slender  and  the  vaulted  roof  grew  light,  till 
they  had  wreathed  themselves  into  the  semblance  of  the  summer 
woods  at  their  fairest;  and  of  the  dead  field-flowers,  long 
trodden  down  in  blood,  sweet  monumental  statues  were  set  to 
bloom  forever,  beneath  the  porch  of  the  temple,  or  the  canopy 
of  the  tomb.  —  Ruskin  :  The  Stones  of  Venice. 

8.  —  The  poet,  the  orator,  bred  in  the  woods,  whose  senses  have 
been  nourished  by  their  fair  and  appeasing  changes,  year  after 
year,  without  design  and  without  heed  —  shall  not  lose  their  lesson 
altogether,  in  the  roar  of  cities  or  the  broil  of  politics.     Long  here- 
after, amidst  agitation  and   terror  in  national  councils  —  in  the 
hour  of  revolution  —  these  solid  images  shall  reappear  in  their 
morning  lustre,  as  fit  symbols  and  words  of  the  thoughts  which  the 
passing  events  shall  awaken.     At  the  call  of  a  noble  sentiment, 
again  the  woods  wave,  the  pines  murmur,  the  river  rolls  and  shines, 
and  the  cattle  low  upon  the  mountains,  as  he  saw  and  heard  them  in 
his  infancy.    And  with  these  forms,  the  spells  of  persuasion,  the 
keys  of  power  are  put  into  his  hands.  —  Emerson  :  Nature. 

9.  —  The  battle  of  Actium  was  followed  by  the  final  conquest  of 
Egypt.     That  conquest  rounded  and  integrated  the  glorious  em- 
pire ;  it  was  now  circular  as  a  shield,  orbicular  as  the  disk  of  a 
planet ;  the  great  Julian  arch  was  now  locked  into  the  cohesion  of 
granite  by  its  last  keystone.     From  that  day  forward  for  three 
hundred  years,  there  was  silence  in  the  world ;  no  muttering  was 
heard;   no  eye  winked  beneath  the  wing.    Winds  of  hostility 
might  still  rave  at  intervals;  but  it  was  on  the  outside  of  the 
mighty  empire;    it  was  at  a  dreamlike  distance;  and,  like  the 
storms  that  beat  against  some  monumental  castle,  "  and  at  the  doors 


338  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

and  windows  seem  to  call,"  they  rather  irritated  and  vivified  the 
sense  of  security,  than  at  all  disturbed  its  luxurious  lull. 

—  De  Quincey  :   The  Philosophy  of  Roman  History. 

10 —  There  are  two  methods  by  which,  given  men  and  arms, 
an  army  may  be  created :  one  is  by  the  tedious  process  of  daily 
drill,  continued  until  the  soldier  becomes  a  machine  and  obedience 
a  habit;  the  other  is  by  the  leadership  of  one  in  whom  every 
soldier  has  an  unfaltering  confidence.  The  one  requires  time  — 
the  other,  a  MAN. 

11.  —  If  we  confine  our  attention  to  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts, 
and  leave,  for  the  present,  music  and  architecture  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, we  find  that  there  are  two  elements  in  them :  the  representa- 
tion of  nature  and  the  action  of  human  genius.  Exactness  in  the 
representation  of  nature  is  what  is  called  "truth"  in  art,  and  hu- 
man genius  manifests  itself  by  the  powers  of  invention  and  execu- 
tion, both  of  which  are  incompatible  with  complete  and  absolute 
fidelity  in  the  representation  of  nature.  The  best  way  to  under- 
stand truth  in  art  is  to  suppose  it  generally  prevalent  above  all 
other  qualities,  so  predominant  as  to  stifle  or  exclude  them.  This 
would  happen  in  the  art  of  painting  if  it  always  realized  Mr.  Rus- 
kin's  last  ideal  of  perfection.  The  best  picture,  according  to  the 
most  ultimate  declarations  of  his  opinion,  is  that  which  most 
nearly  resembles  the  reflection  of  nature  in  a  mirror.  It  would 
then  follow  that  art  would  be  simply  nature  with  inferior  power  of 
illumination,  and  the  works  of  different  artists  would  resemble 
each  other  as  closely  as  do  reflections  of  the  same  face  in  the  dif- 
ferent mirrors  in  a  drawing-room.  All  the  interest  of  individual 
interpretation  would  be  at  an  end,  and  in  exchange  for  it  we  should 
have  something  like  the  veracity  of  perfectly  colored  photographs, 
in  which  the  defects  of  ordinary  photography  would  be  corrected 
by  an  eye  as  faithful  in  color  as  photography  is  in  form.  After 
the  general  attainment  of  such  an  ideal  as  this,  all  art  might 
reasonably  be  anonymous,  as  the  authorship  of  pictures  would  be 
past  recognition.  It  would  signify  nothing  to  any  one  whether  a 
Titian  or  a  Rubens  had  applied  the  color  to  a  canvas  if  both  mas- 
ters had  precisely  the  same  qualities,  and  indeed  the  total  destruc- 
tion of  all  previous  art  would  be  but  a  trifling  loss  if  the  well- 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM.  339 

trained  craftsmen  of  the  future  could  replace  its  truth  with  an 
equally  absolute  veracity.     We  do  not  regret  the  loss  of  water  that 
has  flowed  away  when  the  springs  of  it  are  limpid  and  perennial. 
—  P.  G.  Hamerton:  Contemporary  Review,  September,  1893. 

12.  —  The  thud,  thud  of  a  horse's  hoof  does  not  alarm  fish. 
Basking  in  the  sun  under  the  bank,  a  jack  or  pike  lying  close  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  will  remain  unmoved,  however  heavy 
the  sound  may  be.  The  vibrations  reach  the  fish  in  several  ways. 
There  is  what  we  should  ourselves  call  the  noise  as  conveyed  by 
the  air,  and  which  in  the  case  of  a  jack  actually  at  the  surface  may 
be  supposed  to  reach  him  direct.  Next  there  is  the  vibration  pass- 
ing through  the  water,  which  is  usually  pronounced  to  be  a  good 
medium.  Lastly,  there  is  the  bodily  movement  of  the  substance 
of  the  water.  When  the  bank  is  hard  and  dry  this  latter  amounts 
only  to  a  slight  shaking,  but  it  frequently  happens  that  the  side 
of  a  brook  or  pond  is  soft,  and  "  gives  "  under  a  heavy  weight. 
Sometimes  the  edge  is  even  pushed  into  the  water,  and  the  brook 
in  a  manner  squeezed.  You  can  see  this  when  cattle  walk  by  the 
margin ;  the  grassy  edge  is  pushed  out,  and  in  a  minute  way  they 
may  be  said  to  contract  the  stream.  It  is  in  too  small  a  degree  to 
have  the  least  apparent  effect  upon  the  water,  but  it  is  different 
with  the  sense  of  hearing,  which  is  so  delicate  that  the  bodily 
movement  thus  caused  may  be  reasonably  believed  to  be  very 
audible  indeed  to  the  jack.  The  wire  fences  which  are  now  so 
much  used  round  shrubberies  and  across  parks  give  a  very  good 
illustration  of  the  conveyance  of  sound.  Strung  tight  by  a  span- 
ner, the  strands  of  twisted  wire  resemble  a  stringed  instrument. 
If  you  place  your  hand  on  one  of  the  wires  and  get  a  friend  to 
strike  it  with  his  stick,  say,  thirty  or  forty  yards  away,  you  will 
distinctly  feel  it  vibrate.  If  the  ear  is  held  close  enough  you  will 
hear  it,  vibration  and  sound  being  practically  convertible  terms. 
To  the  basking  jack  three  such  wires  extend,  and  when  the  cart- 
horse in  the  meadow  puts  down  his  heavy  hoof  he  strikes  them 
all  at  once.  Yet,  though  fish  are  so  sensitive  to  sound,  the  jack  is 
not  in  the  least  alarmed,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  he 
knows  what  it  is.  A  whole  herd  of  cattle  feeding  and  walking 
about  does  not  disturb  him,  but  if  the  light  step  —  light  in  com- 
parison —  of  a  man  approach,  away  he  goes.  Poachers,  therefore, 


340  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

unable  to  disguise  their  footsteps,  endeavor  to  conceal  them,  and 
by  moving  slowly  to  avoid  vibrating  the  earth,  and  through  it  the 
the  water.  —  Richard  Jeff eries :  The  Life  of  the  Fields. 

13.  —  I  looked  at  the  burning  ship.  .  .  .     Between  the  darkness 
of  earth  and  heaven  she  was  burning  fiercely  upon  a  disk  of  purple 
sea  shot  by  the  blood-red  play  of  gleams ;  upon  a  disk  of  water 
glittering  and  sinister.     A  high,  clear  flame,  an  immense  and  lonely 
flame,  ascended  from  the  ocean,  and  from  its  summit  the  black 
smoke  poured  continuously  at  the  sky.     She  burned  furiously, 
mournful  and  imposing  like  a  funeral  pile  kindled  in  the  night, 
surrounded  by  the  sea,  watched  over  by  the  stars.     A  magnificent 
death  had  come  like  a  grace,  like  a  gift,  like  a  reward  to  that  old 
ship  at  the  end  of  her  laboring  days.     The  surrender  of  her  weary 
ghost  to  the  keeping  of  stars  and  sea  was  stirring  like  the  sight 
of  a  glorious  triumph.     The  masts  fell  just  before  daybreak,  and 
for  a  moment  there   was  a  burst  and    turmoil   of  sparks  that 
seemed  to  fill  with  flying  fire  the  night,  patient  and  watchful, 
the  vast  night  lying  silent  upon  the  sea.     At  daybreak  she  was 
only  a  charred  shell,  floating  still  under  a  cloud  of  smoke  and 
bearing  a  glowing  mass  of  coal  within.  —  Joseph  Conrad:  Youth. 

14.  —  The  river  was  swollen  with  the  long  rains.     From  Vaden- 
court  all  the  way  to  Origny  it  ran  with  ever  quickening  speed,  tak- 
ing fresh  heart* at  each. mile,  and  racing  as  though  it  already  smelt 
the  sea.     The  water  was  yellow  and  turbulent,  swung  with  an  angry 
eddy  among  half-submerged  willows,  and  made  an  angry  clatter 
along  stony  shores.     The  course  kept  turning  and  turning  in  a 
narrow  and  well-timbered  valley.     Now  the  river  would  approach 
the  side,  and  run  gliding  along  the  chalky  base  of  the  hill,  and 
show  us  a  few  open  colza  fields  among  the  trees.     Now  it  would 
skirt  the  garden  walls  of  houses,  where  we  might  catch  a  glimpse 
through  a  doorway,  and  see  a  priest  pacing  in  the  checkered  sun- 
light.    Again,  the  foliage  closed  so  thickly  in  front  that  there 
seemed  to  be  no  issue;  only  a  thicket  of  willows  overtopped  by 
elms  and  poplars,  under  which  the  river  ran  flush  and  fleet,  and 
where  a  kingfisher  flew  past  like  a  piece  of  the  blue  sky.     On  these 
different  manifestations  the  sun  poured  its  clear  and  catholic  looks. 
The  shadows  lay  as  solid  on  the  swift  surface  of  the  stream  as  on 
the  stable  meadows.     The  light  sparkled  golden  in  the  dancing 


FOB  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  341 

poplar  leaves,  and  brought  the  hills  into  communion  with  our 
eyes.  And  all  the  while  the  river  never  stopped  running  or  took 
breath  ;  and  the  reeds  along  the  whole  valley  stood  shivering  from 
top  to  toe.  —  R.  L.  Stevenson  :  An  Inland  Voyage. 

15. —  And  in  awhile  the  dominant  course  of  the  river  itself, 
the  animation  of  its  steady  downward  flow,  even  amid  the  sand- 
shoals  and  whispering  islets  of  the  dry  season,  bore  his  thoughts 
beyond  it,  in  a  sudden,  irresistible  appetite  for  the  sea ;  and  he  de- 
termined, varying  slightly  from  the  described  route,  to  reach  his 
destination  by  way  of  the  coast.  From  Nantes  he  descended  im- 
perceptibly along  tall  hedge-rows  of  acacia,  till  on  a  sudden,  with 
a  novel  freshness  in  the  air,  through  a  low  archway  of  laden  fruit 
trees  it  was  visible  —  sand,  sea,  and  sky,  in  three  quiet  spaces,  line 
upon  line.  The  features  of  the  landscape  changed  again,  and  the 
gardens,  the  rich  orchards,  gave  way  to  bare,  grassy  undulations ; 
only  the  open  sandy  spaces  presented  their  own  native  flora,  for  the 
fine  silex  seemed  to  have  crept  into  the  tall,  wiry  stalks  of  the 
ixias,  like  grasses  the  seeds  of  which  had  expanded,  by  solar 
magic,  into  veritable  flowers,  crimson,  green,  or  yellow  patched 
with  black.  —  Pater :  Gaston  de  La  Tour. 

16. — Thick,  beautiful,  and  closely  curled  masses  of  rich  brown, 
much  neglected  hair  fell  about  an  ample  brow,  and  almost  to  the 
wearer's  shoulders;  strong  eyebrows  masked  with  their  dark  shad- 
ows a  pair  of  rather  sunken  eyes,  in  which  a  sort  of  fire,  instinct  with 
what  may  be  called  a  proud  cynicism,  burned  with  furtive  energy. 
His  rather  high  cheekbones  were  the  more  observable  because  his 
cheeks  were  roseless  and  hollow  enough  to  indicate  the  waste  of 
life  and  midnight  oil  to  which  the  youth  was  addicted.  Close 
shaving  left  bare  his  very  full,  not  to  say  sensuous  lips,  and  square- 
cut  masculine  chin.  Rather  below  the  middle  height,  and  with  a 
slightly  rolling  gait,  Rossetti  came  forward  among  his  fellows  with 
a  jerky  step,  tossed  the  falling  hair  back  from  his  face,  and,  having 
both  hands  in  his  pockets,  faced  the  student  world  with  an  insouci- 
ant air  which  savored  of  thorough  self-reliance.  A  bare  throat,  a 
falling,  ill-kept  collar,  boots  not  over-familiar  with  brushes,  black 
and  well-worn  habiliments,  including  not  the  ordinary  jacket  of 
the  period,  but  a  loose  dress-coat  which  had  once  been  new  —  these 
were  the  outward  and  visible  signs  of  a  mood  which  cared  even  less 


ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

for  appearances  than  the  art  student  of  those  days  was  accustomed 
to  care,  which  undoubtedly  was  little  enough. —  Portrait  of  Dante 
Gabriel  Rossetti  by  a  fellow-student,  quoted  by  A.  C.  Benson  in 
/.'  »-eWi;  English  Men  of  Letters. 

17.  —  It  [Rossetti's  Fra  Pace']  represents  a  monk  kneeling  at  a 
desk  and  making  an  illumination.     The  room  in  which  he  is  at 
work  is  a  kind  of  bedroom  studio.     Above  the  bed  hangs  a  bell, 
the  rope  of  which  goes  down  through  a  large  opening  in  the  floor, 
by  which  the  room  seems  to  be  entered,  and  which  gives  a  glimpse 
of  a  tiled  passage  below  and  a  bit  of  landscape.    The  picture  is 
full  of  abundance  of  quaint  detail,  somewhat  archaic  in  character. 
On  the  side  of  the  monk's  desk  hangs  a  little  row  of  bottles  of 
pigment ;  on  the  window-ledge  is  a  dead  mouse,  which  he  is  draw- 
ing; close  to  his  hand  lies  a  slice  of  pomegranate,  also  probably 
serving  as  a  model.    On  the  tail  of  the  monk's  frock  lies  a  cat 
asleep,  and  a  cheerful  little  acolyte,  with  a  mirthful  smile,  in  a  re- 
ligious dress  with  embroidered  collar  and  cuffs,  is  tickling  it  with 
a  straw.     But  the  charm  of  the  picture  is  the  face  of  the  monk, 
thin  and  amiable,  with  sparse  hair,  the  lips  drawn  up  in  the  nicety 
of  the  work,  the  quiet  eyelid  falling  over  the  eye,  as  he  looks  down- 
ward at  his  slender  brush,  held  in  a  strong  white  hand.     There  is 
a  tired  half-smile  on  his  face,  but  his  complete  absorption,  together 
with  the  ordered  look  of  the  quiet  room,  with  its  signs  of  peaceful 
habitation,  strike  the  note  of  cloistered  calm  and  tranquil  happi- 
ness. —  A.  C.  Benson. 

18.  —  Outside,  in  the  piazza  before  the  church,  there  was  an  idle, 
cruel  crowd,  amusing  itself  with  the  efforts  of  a  blind  old  man  to 
find  the  entrance.     He  had  a  number  of  books  which  he  desper- 
ately laid  down  while  he  ran  his  helpless  hands  over  the  clustered 
columns,  and  which  he  then  desperately  caught  up  again,  in  fear  of 
losing  them.     At  other  times  he  paused,  and  wildly  clasped  his  hands 
upon  his  eyes,  and  then  threw  up  his  arms ;  and  then  began  to  run  to 
and  fro  again  uneasily,  while  the  crowd  laughed  and  jeered.     Doubt- 
less a  taint  of  madness  afflicted  him  ;  but  not  the  less  he  seemed  the 
type  of  a  blind  soul  that  gropes  darkly  about  through  life,  to  find  the 
doorway  of  some  divine  truth  or  beauty,  —  touched  by  the  heavenly 
harmonies  from  within,  and  miserably  failing,  amid  the  scornful 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM.  343 

cries  and  bitter  glee  of  those  who  have  no  will  but  to  mock  aspira- 
tion. —  W.  D.  Howells :  Italian  Journeys. 

19.  —  There  seemed  just  now  the  tiniest  twinkle  of  movement 
by  the  rushes,  but  it  was  lost  among  the  hedge  parsley.  Among 
the  gray  leaves  of  the  willow  there  is  another  flit  of  motion;  and 
visible  now  against  the  sky  there  is  a  little  brown  bird,  not  to  be 
distinguished  at  the  moment  from  the  many  other  little  brown 
birds  that  are  known  to  be  about.  He  got  up  into  the  willow  from 
the  hedge  parsley  somehow,  without  being  seen  to  climb  or  fly. 
Suddenly  he  crosses  to  the  tops  of  the  hawthorn  and  immediately 
flings  himself  up  into  the  air  a  yard  or  two,  his  wings  and  ruffled 
crest  making  a  ragged  outline;  jerk,  jerk,  jerk,  as  if  it  were  with 
the  utmost  difficulty  he  could  keep  even  at  that  height.  He  scolds, 
and  twitters,  and  chirps,  and  all  at  once  sinks  like  a  stone  into  the 
hedge  and  out  of  sight  as  a  stone  into  a  pond.  It  is  a  white-throat ; 
his  nest  is  deep  in  the  parsley  and  nettles.  Presently  he  will  go 
out  to  the  island  apple-tree  and  back  again  in  a  minute  or  two ; 
the  pair  of  them  are  so  fond  of  each  other's  affectionate  company 
they  cannot  remain  apart  —  Richard  Jefferies :  The  Pageant  of 
Summer. 

20. —  Here,  1  think,  lies  one  of  the  pernicious  results  of  an 
over-developed  system  of  athletics.  The  more  games  that  people 
play,  the  better,  but  I  do  not  think  it  is  wholesome  to  talk  about 
them  for  large  spaces  of  leisure  time,  any  more  than  it  is  whole- 
some to  talk  about  your  work  or  your  meals.  The  result  of  all  the 
talk  about  athletics  is  that  the  newspapers  get  full  of  them  too. 
That  is  only  natural.  It  is  the  business  of  newspapers  to  find  out 
what  interests  people,  and  to  tell  them  about  it ;  but  the  bad  side 
of  it  is  that  young  athletes  get  introduced  to  the  pleasures  of  pub- 
licity, and  that  ambitious  young  men  think  that  athletics  are  a 
short  cut  to  fame.  To  have  played  in  a  University  eleven  is  like 
accepting  a  peerage ;  you  wear  for  the  rest  of  your  life  an  agree- 
able and  honorable  social  label,  and  I  do  not  think  that  a  peerage 
is  deserved,  or  should  be  accepted,  at  the  age  of  twenty.  I  do  not 
think  it  is  a  good  kind  of  fame  which  depends  on  a  personal  per- 
formance rather  than  upon  a  man's  usefulness  to  the  human  race. 

21.  —  If  we  assume  that  our  eyes  could  see  an  electric  wave 
of  wireless  telegraphy  running  over  the  earth,  just  as  we  ac- 


344  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

tually  see  the  waves  running  over  a  pond,  or  the  shadow  of  a 
cloud  running  over  a  landscape,  we  should  expect  to  see  a  hemi- 
spherical wave  thrown  out  from  the  sending  mast  every  time  an 
electric  spark  discharge  was  produced  there.  The  hemisphere 
would  cover  the  land  like  an  inverted  bowl,  and  would  expand  in 
all  directions  like  the  upper  half  of  a  gigantic,  swelling  soap-bubble, 
at  the  speed  of  186,000  miles  a  second.  At  the  upper  portions  of 
the  hemisphere,  and  particularly  at  the  top,  the  waves  would  be 
very  thin  and  weak.  It  would  be  denser  and  stronger  in  the 
lower  portions,  and  especially  in  the  lowest  portion  that  spreads 
over  the  ground  like  a  ring. 

22.  —  The  two  great  dangers  of  American  bathing  are  the  under- 
tow and  the  "  sea-puss.*'    The  undertow  varies  at  different  stages 
of  the  tide,  and  with  the  different  strengths  of  the  surf;  it  is 
simply  the  return  of  the  volume  of  water  that  has  been  thrown 
up  on  the  beach,  and  the  stronger  the  surf,  the  greater  the  under- 
tow.   It  may  have  curious  deviations;  instead  of  running  straight 
out  to  sea,  it  may  extend  up  or  down  the  beach,  so  that  the  sur- 
prised bather  sometimes  finds  himself  continually  working  a  hun- 
dred yards  or  so  beyond  his  point  of  entry.     The  other  and  greater 
danger  of  bathing  is  the  largely  unknown  "sea-puss,"  or,  as  it  is 
more  properly  termed,  the  "  sea-purse."    This  condition  of  affairs 
results  from  the  great  influence  which  the  winds  have  on  ocean 
currents.    Its  formation  is  easily  explained ;  for  example,  if  the 
wind  has  been  blowing  steadily  from  one  quarter,  the  surf  will 
break  on  the  beach  from  that  direction,  when,  suddenly,  the  wind 
shifts  to  another  quarter ;  as  a  result,  a  second  current  of  water  is 
started,  which,  meeting  the  first  current  nearer  the  shore,  causes 
the  ocean  to  "  purse  up,"  forming  a  small  whirlpool,  which  ends 
in  an  undertow  running  strongly  out  to  sea.     It  was  the  writer's 
unfortunate  experience  to  have  been  caught  in  one  of  these  "  sea- 
purses  "  several  years  ago ;  as  an  illustration  of  its  force,  the  fact 
that  two  bathers  were  drowned,  and  four  were  brought  back  to 
life  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  is  sufficient  evidence. 

23.  — The  intrinsic  worth  of  human  labor  in  any  department 
is  very  small.     Much  of  every  day  is  taken  up,  and  necessarily 
taken  up,  with  actions  which  have  no  value.     I  had  an  old  friend 
who  was  very  great  on  the  subject  of  "  redeeming  the  time,"  and 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM.  345 

very  hard  on  what  he  called  unprofitable  occupations.  Yet  he  took 
an  hour  to  dress  in  the  morning  and  an  hour  to  undress  at  night, 
duties  which  he  performed  with  a  good  deal  of  rectitude.  I  sup- 
pose he  never  calculated  the  somewhat  appalling  fact  that  in  the 
course  of  a  long  life  he  had  spent  in  all  some  six  entire  years  in 
the  process  of  dressing  and  undressing  I  If  one  once  begins  these 
gloomy  calculations,  it  is  shocking  to  reflect  how  very  small  a  por- 
tion of  our  life  is  really  given  to  what  maybe  called  serious  things. 
The  truth  really  is  that  a  man's  life  is  the  expression  of  his 
temperament,  and  that  what  eventually  matters  is  his  attitude 
and  relation  to  life,  his  hopes  and  aspirations,  and  not  only  his 
performance. 

24.  —  One  of  the  serious  consequences  of  the  drawing  away  of 
the  youth  and  energy  of  the  villages  and  towns  is  found  in  the 
benumbing  effect  it  has  upon  those  who  remain  behind.  There  is 
little  incentive  to  start  new  enterprises,  and  especially  is  there 
small  encouragement  for  boys  to  learn  skilled  trades.  Hence  the 
prospect  before  the  boys  of  these  villages  is  depressing  in  the 
extreme.  There  is  practically  no  chance  for  a  boy  to  become 
skilled  in  any  trade  except  in  the  building  trades,  the  blacksmith 
shops,  and  in  the  commonest  handicrafts.  The  late  awakening  to 
the  value  of  manual-training  schools  is  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  largest  cities.  Nothing  is  done  in  the  smaller  towns  to 
teach  manual  skill  or  general  expertness  in  the  use  of  tools,  and 
the  idea  of  any  public  effort  to  encourage  the  education  of  highly 
skilled  mechanics  in  any  department  is  not  even  thought  of.  A 
boy  may  learn  to  hold  a  plough,  to  shovel  dirt,  to  do  common  car- 
penters' work,  to  paint  a  house,  to  shoe  a  horse ;  he  may  learn  how 
to  clerk  in  a  store,  to  become  a  lawyer,  or  to  sell  life-insurance; 
but  the  country  towns  are  absolutely  dead  to  the  need  of  cultivat- 
ing the  mechanic  arts,  and  teaching  the  American  youth  that 
general  knowledge  and  special  skill  without  which  our  native 
workers  are  being  so  rapidly  driven  out  of  the  higher  branches  of 
industrial  activity.  In  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  Belgium, 
Holland,  Austria,  the  village  boy  or  girl  with  any  aptitude  finds  a 
school  near  by  in  which  he  may  pursue  the  lines  of  study  proper 
to  lay  the  foundation  for  any  art  or  calling,  and  in  most  cases  he 
may  then  enter  a  trade  school  from  which,  after  years  of  the  most 


346  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

thorough  practical  and  technical  instruction,  he  may  be  graduated 
a  finished  master  of  his  chosen  trade. 

25.  —  The  qualities  which  render  the  bamboo  applicable  to  so 
many  useful  purposes,  and  in  which  it  surpasses  all  other  woods, 
are  its  straightness  and  length  ;  its  elasticity,  strength,  hollowness, 
smoothness,  lightness,  and  roundness,  as  also  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be   split,  and  the  regularity  of  its  cleavage.     Then,  in  a 
minor  degree,  comes  the  fact  that  it  imparts  no  smell  or  taint  to 
water,  which  allows  it  to  be  used  in  constructing  drinking-vessels 
of  all  descriptions  and  for  conduits.     Its  quick  growth,  its  abun- 
dance, and  the  ease  with  which  sizes  can  be  matched,  are  also  fac- 
tors that  cannot  be  overlooked.     As  a  result,  it  is  said,  of  free 
silicic  acid  existing  in  the  cane,  it  is  hardened  and  given  a  capa- 
bility of  resisting  many  of  the  destroying  influences  to  which 
other  woods  are  prone. 

26.  —  Houses  of  any  antiquity  in  New  England  are  so  invari- 
ably possessed  with  spirits  that  the  matter  seems  hardly  worth 
alluding  to.     Our  ghost  used  to  heave  deep  sighs  in  a  particular 
corner  of  the  parlor,  and  sometimes  rustled  paper,  as  if  he  were 
turning  over  a  sermon  in  the  long  upper  entry,  —  where  neverthe- 
less he  was  invisible  in   spite  of  the  bright  moonshine  that  fell 
through  the  eastern  window.    Not  improbably  he  wished  me  to 
edit  and  publish  a  selection  from  a  chest  full  of  manuscript  dis- 
courses that  stood  in  the  garret.     Once,  while  Hillard  and  other 
friends  sat  talking  with  us  in  the  twilight,  there  came  a  rustling 
noise  as  of  a  minister's  silk  gown,  sweeping  through  the  very  midst 
of  the  company  so  closely  as  almost  to  brush  against  the  chairs. 
Still  there  was  nothing  visible.     A  yet  stranger  business  was  that 
of  a  ghostly  servant-maid,  who  used  to  be  heard  in  the  kitchen  at 
deepest  midnight,  grinding  coffee,  cooking,  ironing,  —  performing, 
in  short,  all  kinds  of  domestic  labor,  — although  no  traces  of  any- 
thing accomplished  could  be  detected  the  next  morning.     Some 
neglected  duty  of  her  servitude  —  some   ill-starched  ministerial 
band  —  disturbed  the  poor  damsel  in  her  grave  and  kept  her  at 
work  without    any  wages.  —  Hawthorne  :    Mosses  from    an   Old 
Manse. 

27.  —  Politics  is  properly  a  profession ;  and,  in  fact,  the  highest 
among  the  learned  professions.     It  should  be  so  regarded  by  the 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  347 

State.  In  this  view  the  uses  of  education  reach  the  highest  limit 
of  human  importance  and  endeavor;  that  is,  the  administration  of 
government.  On  that  administration,  the  peace,  the  morals,  the 
prosperity,  and  the  liberty  of  the  whole  people  are  dependent. 
There  can  be  no  true  and  practical  religion  without  civil  liberty. 
In  turn,  the  character  of  the  administration  is  dependent  on  the 
political  education  of  those  selected  to  conduct  it.  Especially  is 
this  so  in  a  Republic  like  ours ;  a  National  Republic  made  up  of  a 
union  of  lesser  republics,  all  government  being  under  authority  of 
written  constitutions,  and  each  republic  with  separate  and  differ- 
ing constitutions.  The  policies  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  each 
and  all  to  be  recognized  in  administering  government,  must,  neces- 
sarily, be  an  outgrowth  from  the  organization,  and  whatever  that 
outgrowth  may  be  —  whether  tending  to  good  or  evil  —  to  pres- 
ervation or  destruction  of  liberty  — it  must  be  recognized  when  it 
appears,  be  studied,  and  be  so  dealt  with  as  to  make  it  least  harm- 
ful and  most  useful. 

28. — When  moisture-laden  atmosphere,  from  any  reason, 
ascends  sufficiently,  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected  is 
diminished,  it  expands  and  is  thereby  cooled  and  its  moisture 
condensed.  When  this  condensation  takes  place  with  sufficient 
rapidity  it  rains  or  snows,  otherwise  only  clouds  are  produced. 
Clouds  may  be  produced  in  other  ways,  but  not  rain.  The  ascent 
of  the  air  which  produces  rain  is  generally  brought  about  in  one 
of  two  ways :  first,  if  the  prevailing  winds  blow  over  high  moun- 
tains, they  will,  in  the  passage,  be  deprived  of  their  moisture. 
Thus  are  produced  the  heaviest  annual  rainfalls  of  the  earth. 
Second,  when  the  atmosphere  over  any  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  becomes  warmer  or  lighter  than  over  the  surrounding 
areas,  it  ascends  just  as  the  air  does  in  a  hot  chimney,  and  in  the 
same  manner,  too,  it  draws  in  the  adjacent  air  and  the  whole  is 
carried  aloft  to  be  expanded,  cooled,  and  deprived  of  its  moisture, 
with  great  liberation  of  heat,  which  heat  keeps  the  draught  in 
operation. 

29.  —  One  of  the  points  which  has  been  made  against  the  rail- 
ways, and  apparently  with  justice,  is  the  laxity  in  operation  of  the 
block-signal  system,  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  practically  to  neu- 
tralize nearly  all  of  the  protection  which  it  is  supposed  to  afford. 


348  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

That  an  engineer  should  be  permitted,  under  any  consideration 
whatever,  to  run  past  a  block-signal,  is  to  render  that  system  far 
worse  than  useless,  since  its  presence  creates  a  sense  of  security 
which  does  not  exist  If  no  signal  system  is  installed,  the  very 
feeling  of  insecurity  creates  an  individual  degree  of  watchfulness, 
which  gives  some  protection.  When,  however,  a  system,  admirable 
in  itself,  serves  to  lull  that  watchfulness,  while  at  the  same  time 
its  value  is  practically  destroyed  by  the  violation  of  its  funda- 
mental principle,  it  is  far  worse  than  none.  The  first  thing  which 
should  be  done,  if  the  railways  of  the  United  States  wish  to  allay 
the  feeling  of  insecurity  which  the  recent  accidents  have  created,  is 
to  announce,  in  unmistakable  terms,  that  the  block  system  is  to 
be  enforced  absolutely,  and  to  make  that  statement  good  beyond 
suspicion, 

30-  —  It  seems  hard  to  realize  that  the  lightest  whisper  must 
continue  its  round  of  force  through  all  eternity,  yet  on  the  belief 
that  such  is  the  case  is  based  all  modern  physics  and  very  many  of 
the  most  useful  adjuncts  of  modern  civilization.  It  is  this  that 
philosophers  mean  when  they  speak  of  the  conservation  of  energy, 
and  the  other  axiom,  that  of  the  correlation  of  forces,  is  a  necessary 
adjunct.  When  heat  is  applied  to  water  in  a  steam  boiler  it  does 
not  remain  solely  as  heat.  A  part  of  it  (as  the  older  philosophers 
sai  1)  becomes  latent  or  hidden  as  the  water  turns  to  steam.  It  is 
the  hidden  force  which  is  represented  by  expansion  and  consequent 
compression  of  the  vapor  of  water,  and  that  is  utilized  in  the  steam 
engine.  Heat  is  thus  transformed  to  power,  and  this  in  turn  may 
be  transformed,  as  in  the  dynamo-electric  machine,  to  electricity, 
which,  in  its  turn,  in  the  electric  arc  for  example,  may  again  be 
turned  to  heat  and  light,  or  in  the  electric  motor  to  power.  In  all 
this  transference  nothing  is  lost.  It  is  true  that  all  the  heat  ap- 
plied is  not  converted  to  a  form  useful  to  man  —  that  some  is 
"  lost,"  as  it  is  expressed,  through  the  imperfection  of  machinery 
—  but  this  is  not  lost  to  the  economy  of  nature.  It  is  only  trans- 
ferred to  some  other  force  not  yet  harnessed  to  the  uses  of  civiliza- 
tion. In  the  so-called  storage  battery  electricity  is  transferred  into 
chemical  energy,  and  this  in  turn  is  capable  of  being  transferred 
again  into  electrical  energy.  Force  is  indeed  stored  and  accumu- 
lated, but  not  in  the  form  of  electrical  force.  In  its  present  most 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  349 

familiar  form  the  storage  battery  consists  of  a  series  of  perforated 
lead  plates  coated  with  oxides  of -lead  and  immersed  in  a  solution 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  current  from  a  dynamo-electric  machine 
transforms  one  of  these  plates  to  a  form  of  pure  lead,  depriving  the 
litharge  of  its  oxygen,  while  the  oxide  of  the  other  plate  is  still 
further  oxidized  and  is  partially  attacked  by  the  acid.  On  the  com- 
pletion of  this  change  a  reverse  action  is  set  up,  the  oxygen  flowing 
from  the  "  charged  "  to  the  "  reduced  "  plate,  and  the  surplus  en- 
ergy is  again  set  free  as  electricity.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  it 
is  chemical  and  not  electrical  force  that  is  "  stored,"  and  it  is  only 
the  remarkable  economy  of  power  which  is  accomplished,  as  well 
as  its  convenience,  which  makes  the  storage  battery  a  successful 
method  of  applying  power.  The  imperfections  inherent  in  all 
human  mechanisms  prevent  a  full  return  of  the  power  originally 
applied,  but  the  claim  is  made  and  generally  admitted  that  from 
80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  electrical  energy  originally  applied  is  re- 
covered again  in  a  well-made  battery. 

31.  —  This  instrument  contains  an  enumeration  of  powers  ex- 
pressly granted  by  the  people  to  their  government.  It  has  been 
said  that  these  powers  ought  to  be  construed  strictly.  But  why 
ought  they  to  be  so  construed?  Is  there  one  sentence  in  the 
Constitution  which  gives  countenance  to  this  rule?  In  the  last  of 
the  enumerated  powers,  that  which  grants  expressly  the  means  for 
carrying  all  others  into  execution,  Congress  is  authorized  "  to  make 
all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper"  for  the  purpose. 
But  this  limitation  on  the  means  which  may  be  used  is  not  ex- 
tended to  the  powers  which  are  conferred ;  nor  is  there  one  sen- 
tence in  the  Constitution  which  has  been  pointed  out  by  the  gentle- 
men of  the  bar,  or  which  we  have  been  able  to  discern,  that 
prescribes  this  rule.  We  do  not,  therefore,  think  ourselves  justi- 
fied in  adopting  it.  What  do  gentlemen  mean  by  a  strict  construc- 
tion? If  they  contend  only  against  that  enlarged  construction 
which  would  extend  words  beyond  their  natural  and  obvious  im- 
port, we  might  question  the  application  of  the  term,  but  should 
not  controvert  the  principle.  If  they  contend  for  that  narrow  con- 
struction, which,  in  support  of  some  theory  not  to  be  found  in  the 
Constitution,  would  deny  to  the  government  those  powers  which 
the  words  of  the  grant,  as  usually  understood,  import,  and  which 


350  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPHS 

are  consistent  with  the  general  views  and  objects  of  the  instru- 
ment ;  for  that  narrow  construction  which  would  cripple  the  gov- 
ernment and  render  it  unequal  to  the  objects  for  which  it  is 
declared  to  be  instituted,  and  to  which  the  powers  given,  as  fairly 
understood,  render  it  competent;  then  we  cannot  perceive  the  pro- 
priety of  this  strict  construction,  nor  adopt  it  as  the  rule  by  which 
the  Constitution  is  to  be  expounded.  As  men  whose  intentions 
require  no  concealment  generally  employ  the  words  which  most 
directly  and  amply  express  the  ideas  they  intend  to  convey,  the 
enlightened  patriots  who  framed  our  Constitution,  and  the  people 
who  adopted  it,  must  be  understood  to  have  employed  words  in 
their  natural  sense,  and  to  have  intended  what  they  have  said.  If, 
from  the  imperfection  of  human  language,  there  should  be  serious 
doubts  respecting  the  extent  of  any  given  power,  it  is  a  well-settled 
rule  that  the  objects  for  which  it  was  given,  especially  when  those 
objects  are  expressed  in  the  instrument  itself,  should  have  great 
influence  in  the  construction.  We  know  of  no  reason  for  exclud- 
ing this  rule  from  the  present  case.  The  grant  does  not  convey 
power  which  might  be  beneficial  to  the  grantor,  if  retained  by 
himself,  or  which  can  enure  solely  to  the  benefit  of  the  grantee,  but 
is  an  investment  of  power  for  the  general  advantage,  in  the  hands 
of  agents  selected  for  that  purpose,  which  power  can  never  be  ex- 
ercised by  the  people  themselves,  but  must  be  placed  in  the  hand 
of  agents,  or  lie  dormant.  We  know  of  no  rule  for  construing  the 
extent  of  such  powers  other  than  is  given  by  the  language  of  the 
instrument  which  confers  them,  taken  in  connection  with  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  were  conferred. — John  Marshall:  Constitu- 
tional Decisions,  pp.  430-432. 


Related  Paragraphs.. 

1.    Biography. 

The  ideal  biographer  should  in  the  first  place  write  of  some  one 
who  is  thoroughly  sympathetic  to  him.  Excessive  admiration, 
though  a  fault,  is  a  fault  on  the  right  side.  As  Arbuthnot  ob- 
serves in  the  recipe  for  an  epic  poem,  the  fire  is  apt  to  cool  down 
wonderfully  when  it  is  spread  on  paper.  Readers  will  make  de- 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  351 

ductions  enough  in  any  case ;  and  nothing  can  compensate  for  a 
want  of  enthusiasm  about  your  subject.  He  should  then  consider 
how  much  space  his  hero  undeniably  deserves,  divide  that  by  two 
(to  make  a  modest  denominator)  and  let  nothing  in  the  world 
tempt  him  to  exceed  the  narrower  limits.  Sam  Weller's  defini- 
tion of  good  letter-writing  applies  equally  to  biography.  The 
reader  should  ask  for  more  and  should  not  get  it.  The  scrapings 
and  remnants  of  a  man's  life  should  be  charitably  left  to  the  harm- 
less race  of  bookmakers,  as  we  give  our  crumbs  to  the  sparrows  in 
winter.  If  there  are  any  incidental  facts  with  which  the  hero  is 
connected,  but  which  have  no  bearing  upon  his  character,  consign 
them  to  an  appendix  or  put  them  into  notes.  I  have  myself  a 
prejudice  against  notes,  and  think  that  a  biography  should  be  as 
independent  of  such  appendages  as  a  new  poem.  But  there  are 
people,  perhaps,  of  better  taste  than  mine  who  like  such  trim- 
mings, and  have  a  fancy  for  trifling  with  them  in  the  intervals  of 
reading. 

The  book  itself  should,  I  hold,  be  a  portrait  in  which  not  a  single 
touch  should  be  admitted  which  is  not  relevant  to  the  purpose  of 
producing  a  speaking  likeness.  The  biographer  should  sternly  con- 
fine himself  to  his  functions  as  introducer;  and  should  give  no 
more  discussion  than  is  clearly  necessary  for  making  the  book  an 
independent  whole.  A  little  analysis  of  motive  may  be  necessary 
here  and  there ;  when,  for  example,  your  hero  has  put  his  hand  in 
somebody's  pocket  and  you  have  to  demonstrate  that  his  conduct 
was  due  to  sheer  absence  of  mind.  But  you  must  always  remem- 
ber that  a  single  concrete  fact,  or  a  saying  into  which  a  man  has 
put  his  whole  soul,  is  worth  pages  of  psychological  analysis.  We 
may  argue  till  Doomsday  about  Swift's  character;  his  single 
phrase  about  "  dying  like  a  poisoned  rat  in  a  hole"  tells  us  more 
than  all  the  commentators.  The  book  should  be  the  man  himself 
speaking  or  acting,  and  nothing  but  the  man.  It  should  be  such 
a  portrait  as  reveals  the  essence  of  character ;  and  the  writer  who 
gives  anything  that  does  not  tell  upon  the  general  effect  is  like 
the  portrait-painter  who  allows  the  chairs  and  tables,  or  even  the 
coat  and  cravat,  to  distract  attention  from  the  face.  The  really 
significant  anecdote  is  often  all  that  survives  of  a  life ;  and  such 
anecdotes  must  be  made  to  tell  properly,  instead  of  being  hidden 
away  in  a  wilderness  of  the  commonplace  ;  they  should  be  a  focus 


352  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

of  interest,  instead  of  a  fallible  extract  for  a  book  of  miscellanies. 
How  much  would  be  lost  of  Johnson  if  we  suppress  the  incident 
of  the  penance  at  Uttoxeter !  It  is  such  incidents  that  in  books, 
as  often  in  life,  suddenly  reveal  to  us  whole  regions  of  sentiment 
but  never  rise  to  the  surface  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  our  day. 

—  Leslie  Stephen. 

2.    The  Art  of  Writing  History. 

The  supreme  virtue  of  the  historian  is  truthfulness,  and  it  may 
be  violated  in  many  different  degrees.  The  worst  form  is  when  a 
writer  deliberately  falsifies  facts  or  deliberately  excludes  from  his 
picture  qualifying  circumstances.  But  there  are  other  and  much 
more  subtle  ways  in  which  party  spirit  continually  and  often 
quite  unconsciously  distorts  history.  All  history  is  necessarily 
a  selection  of  facts,  and  a  writer  who  is  animated  by  a  strong  sym- 
pathy with  one  side  of  a  question  or  a  strong  desire  to  prove  some 
special  point  will  be  much  tempted  in  his  selection  to  give  an 
undue  prominence  to  those  that  support  his  view,  or,  even  where 
neither  facts  nor  arguments  are  suppressed,  to  give  a  party  charac- 
ter to  his  work  by  an  unfair  distribution  of  lights  and  shades. 
The  biographical  element  in  history  is  always  the  most  uncertain. 
Even  among  contemporaries  the  judgment  of  character  and  mo- 
tives depends  largely  on  indications  so  slight  and  subtle  that  they 
rarely  pass  into  books  and  are  only  fully  felt  by  direct  personal 
contact;  and  the  smallest  knowledge  of  life  shows  how  quickly 
anecdotes  and  sayings  are  distorted,  colored,  and  misplaced  when 
they  pass  from  lip  to  lip.  Most  of  the  "good  sayings"  of  history 
are  invention,  and  most  of  them  have  been  attributed  to  different 
persons.  Different  ages  differ  enormously  in  the  severity  of  proof 
which  they  exact,  in  the  degree  of  accuracy  which  they  attain. 
The  credibility  of  a  statement  also  depends  not  only  on  the 
amount  of  its  evidence,  but  also  on  its  own  inherent  probability. 
Every  one  will  feel  that  an  amount  of  testimony  that  would  be 
quite  sufficient  to  persuade  him  that  a  butcher's  boy  had  been 
seen  driving  along  a  highway  is  wholly  different  from  that  which 
would  be  required  to  persuade  him  that  a  ghost  had  been  met 
there.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  history  of  the  past,  and  it 
is  complicated  by  the  great  difference  in  different  ages  of  the 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  353 

measure  of  probability,  or,  in  other  words,  by  the  strong  predis- 
position in  certain  stages  of  knowledge  to  accept  statements  or 
explanations  of  facts  which  in  later  stages  we  know  to  be  incred- 
ible or  in  a  high  degree  improbable. 

Few  things  are  more  difficult  to  attain  than  a  just  perspective 
in  history.  The  most  dramatic  incidents  are  not  the  most  impor- 
tant, and  in  weighing  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  the  past,  our  measures 
of  judgment  are  almost  hopelessly  false.  The  most  humane  man 
cannot  emancipate  himself  from  the  law  of  his  nature,  according 
to  which  he  is  more  affected  by  some  tragic  circumstance  which 
has  taken  place  in  his  own  house  or  in  his  own  street  than  by  a 
catastrophe  which  has  carried  anguish  and  desolation  over  enor- 
mous areas  in  a  distant  continent.  In  history,  too,  there  are  vast 
tracts  which  are  almost  necessarily  unrealized.  We  judge  a 
period  mainly  by  its  great  men,  by  its  brilliant  or  salient  inci- 
dents, by  the  fortunes  of  a  small  class,  and  the  great  mass  of  ob- 
scure, suffering,  inarticulate  humanity,  whose  happiness  is  often 
so  profoundly  affected  by  political  and  military  events,  almost 
escapes  our  notice.  It  should  be  the  object  of  history  to  bring 
before  us  past  events  in  their  true  proportion  and  significance,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  improvements  in  modern  history  is  the  increased 
attention  which  is  paid  to  the  social,  industrial,  and  moral  history 
of  the  poor.  The  paucity  of  our  information  and  the  difficulty  of 
realizing  the  conditions  of  obscure  multitudes  will  always  make 
this  branch  of  history  very  imperfect,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most 
essential  to  the  just  judgment  of  the  past.  Another  task  which 
lies  before  the  historian  is  that  of  distinguishing  proximate  from 
ultimate  causes.  Our  first  natural  impulse  is  to  attribute  a  great 
change  to  the  men  who  effected  it  and  to  the  period  in  which  it 
took  place,  and  to  neglect  or  underrate  the  long  train  of  causes 
which  had  been,  often  through  many  generations,  preparing  its 
advent. 

A  more  fatal  and  very  common  error  is  that  of  judging  the  ac- 
tions of  the  past  by  the  moral  standard  of  our  own  age.  This  is 
especially  the  error  of  novices  in  history  and  of  those  who  without 
any  wide  and  general  culture  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  a 
single  period.  While  the  primary  and  essential  elements  of  right 
and  wrong  remain  unchanged,  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
the  standard  or  ideal  of  duty  is  continually  altering.  A  very  hu- 


354  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

mane  man  in  another  age  may  have  done  things  which  would  now 
be  regarded  as  atrociously  barbarous.  A  very  virtuous  man  may 
have  done  things  which  would  now  indicate  extreme  profligacy. 
We  seldom  indeed  make  sufficient  allowance  for  the  degree  in 
which  the  judgments  and  dispositions  of  even  the  best  men  are 
colored  by  the  moral  tone  of  the  time  or  society  in  which  they 
live.  And  what  is  true  of  individuals  is  equally  true  of  nations. 
In  order  to  judge  equitably  the  legislation  of  any  people,  we  must 
always  consider  corresponding  contemporary  legislations  and  ideas. 
When  this  is  neglected  our  judgments  of  the  past  become  wholly 
false.  —  W.  E.  H.  Lecky :  Forum,  February,  1893. 

3.    Bacon  vs.  Shakespeare. 

When  we  are  asked  to  believe  that  the  whole  of  the  plays  and 
poems  attributed  to  Shakespeare  were  not  written  by  him,  but  by 
Lord  Bacon,  we  naturally  require  evidence  of  the  most  convincing 
kind.  It  must  be  shown  either  that  Bacon  did  actually  write  them, 
in  which  case  of  course  Shakespeare  was  not  their  author,  or  that 
Shakespeare  could  not  possibly  have  written  them,  in  which  case 
somebody  else  must  have  done  so;  and  we  then  demand  proof  that 
Bacon  could  possibly,  and  did  probably,  write  them.  First,  then,  is 
there  any  good  evidence  that  Bacon  did  write  them  ?  Positively 
none  whatever;  only  a  number  of  vague  hints  and  suggestions, 
which  might  perhaps  add  some  weight  to  an  insufficient  amount  of 
direct  testimony,  but  in  its  absence  are  entirely  valueless.  And  then 
we  have  the  enormous,  the  overwhelming  improbability,  that  any 
man  would  write,  and  allow  to  be  published  or  acted,  so  wonder- 
ful a  series  of  poems  and  plays,  while  another  man  received  all  the 
honor  and  all  the  profits  ;  and,  though  surviving  that  man  for  ten 
years,  that  the  real  author  never  made  the  slightest  claim  to  them, 
never  confided  the  secret  to  a  single  friend,  and  died  without  a 
word  or  a  sign  to  show  that  he  had  any  part  or  share  in  them. 
To  most  persons  this  consideration  alone  will  be  conclusive  against 
Bacon's  authorship. 

The  reasons  alleged  for  believing  that  Shakespeare  could  not 
have  written  them,  are  weak  in  the  extreme.  They  amount  to 
this  :  That  his  early  life  was  spent  in  a  small  country  town ;  that  he 
had  not  a  university  education ;  that  most  of  his  early  associates 


FOE  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  355 

and  connections  were  illiterate ;  that  his  signatures  were  almost 
unintelligible ;  and  that  no  single  letter  or  manuscript  exists  in 
his  handwriting.  The  wide  knowledge  of  human  nature,  of  the 
court  and  the  nobility,  and  of  classical  and  modern  litera- 
ture, could  not,  it  is  alleged,  have  been  acquired  by  such  a  man. 
But  in  making  this  objection,  the  opponents  of  Shakespeare  take 
no  account  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  facts  —  of  that  fact 
without  which  the  production  of  these  works  is  in  any  case  unin- 
telligible, the  fact  that  their  author  was  a  transcendent  genius ; 
and  further,  that  it  is  the  especial  quality  of  genius  to  be  able  to 
acquire  and  assimilate  knowledge,  and  to  realize  and  interpret  the 
whole  range  of  human  passions,  moods,  and  foibles,  under  conditions 
that  to  ordinary  men  would  be  impossible.  Admitting,  as  we 
must  admit,  the  genius,  there  is  no  difficulty,  no  improbability. 
For  the  first  twenty  years  of  his  conscious  life,  Shakespeare  lived 
in  the  midst  of  the  calm  and  beautiful  scenery  of  Warwickshire 
and  acquired  that  extensive  knowledge  and  love  of  nature,  and  that 
sympathy  with  all  her  moods  and  aspects,  which  are  manifested 
throughout  his  works.  The  lordly  castles  of  Warwick  and  Kenil- 
worth  were  within  a  dozen  miles  of  Stratford,  and  at  times  of 
festivity  such  castles  were  open  house,  and  at  all  times  would  be 
easily  accessible  through  the  friendship  of  servants  or  retainers ; 
and  thus  might  have  been  acquired  some  portion  of  that  knowl- 
edge of  the  manners  and  speech  of  nobles  and  kings  which  appears 
in  the  historical  plays.  During  his  long  residence  in  London, 
crowded  then  as  now  with  adventurers  of  all  nations,  he  would 
have  had  ample  opportunity  for  studying  human  nature  under 
every  possible  aspect.  The  endearing  terms  applied  to  him  by  his 
friends  show  that  he  had  an  attractive  personality,  and  would 
therefore  easily  gain  access  to  many  grades  of  society;  while  the 
law  courts  at  Westminster  would  afford  ample  opportunities  for 
extending  that  knowledge  of  law  terms  and  legal  processes  which 
he  had  probably  begun  to  acquire  by  means  of  justices'  sessions 
and  coroners'  inquests  in  his  native  town.  Through  his  foreign 
acquaintances  he  might  have  obtained  translations  of  some  of  those 
Italian  or  Spanish  tales  which  furnished  a  portion  of  his  plots,  and 
which  have  been  supposed  to  indicate  an  amount  of  learning  he 
could  not  have  possessed.  What  genius  can  do  under  adverse  cir- 
cumstances and  uncongenial  surroundings,  we  see  in  the  case  of 


356  BELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

Chatterton,  of  Keats,  of  Shelley.  Shakespeare  had  much  better 
opportunities  than  any  of  these ;  he  was  gifted  with  a  far  loftier 
genius,  a  broader  and  more  powerful  intellect,  a  more  balanced 
and  harmonious  personality.  Of  this  rare  combination  of  quali- 
ties and  opportunities,  his  works  are  the  natural  and  consistent 
outcome.  Alike  in  their  depth,  their  beauty,  their  exquisite  fancy, 
their  melodious  harmony,  and  their  petty  defects,  they  are  the 
full  expression  of  the  man  and  his  surroundings. 

Let  us  consider,  lastly,  whether,  supposing  Shakespeare  were 
altogether  out  of  the  way,  Bacon  could  possibly  have  written  the 
plays  and  poems.  These  works  are  universally  admitted  to  ex- 
hibit the  very  highest  poetry,  the  most  exquisite  fancy,  the  deepest 
pathos,  the  most  inimitable  humor.  We  are  told  by  his  admirers 
that  Bacon  possessed  all  these  qualities ;  but  when  any  attempt  is 
made  to  give  us  examples  of  them,  we  find  only  the  most  common- 
place verse  or  labored  and  monotonous  prose.  We  are  told  that 
his  sense  of  humor  was  phenomenal,  that  no  man  had  a  finer  ear 
for  melody  of  speech  —  but  again  no  examples  are  given.  We  are 
told  that  he  rewrote  his  «*  Essays "  many  times  and  gave  them 
ua  thousand  exquisite  touches";  yet  when  we  read  them,  and 
search  for  these  alleged  beauties,  either  of  poetic  ideas  or  noble 
and  harmonious  passages,  we  find  only  a  polished  mediocrity  with 
labored  antitheses  of  epithets,  as  utterly  remote  from  the  glowing 
thoughts  and  winged  words  of  Shakespeare,  as  is  the  doggerel 
version  of  the  psalms  by  Sternhold  and  Hopkins,  from  the  hymns 
of  Keble  or  the  "  In  Memoriam  "  of  Tennyson.  —  Alfred  Russel 
Wallace. 

4.    The  Play  within  a  Play. 

There  are  cases  occasionally  occurring  in  the  English  drama 
and  .the  Spanish,  where  a  play  is  exhibited  within  a  play.  To  go 
no  further,  every  person  remembers  the  remarkable  instance  of 
this  in  Hamlet.  Sometimes  the  same  thing  takes  place  in  paint- 
ing. We  see  a  chamber,  suppose,  exhibited  by  the  artist,  on  the 
walls  of  which  (as  a  customary  piece  of  furniture)  hangs  a  pic- 
ture. And  as  this  picture  again  might  represent  a  room  fur- 
nished with  pictures,  in  the  mere  logical  possibility  of  the  case 
we  might  imagine  this  descent  into  a  life  below  a  life  going  on 
ad  infinitum.  Practically,  however,  the  process  is  soon  stopped. 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  357 

A  retrocession  of  this  nature  is  difficult  to  manage.  The  original 
picture  is  a  mimic,  —  an  unreal  life.  But  this  unreal  life  is 
itself  a  real  life  with  respect  to  the  secondary  picture,  if  such  a 
thing  were  attempted.  Consequently,  at  every  step  of  the  intro- 
volution  (to  neologize  a  little  in  a  case  justifying  a  neologism), 
something  must  be  done  to  differentiate  the  gradations,  and  to 
express  the  subordinations  of  life ;  because  each  term  in  the  de- 
scending series,  being  first  of  all  a  mode  of  non-reality  to  the 
spectator,  is  next  to  assume  the  functions  of  a  real  life  in  its 
relations  to  the  next  lower  or  interior  term  of  the  series. 

What  the  painter  does  in  order  to  produce  this  peculiar  modi- 
fication of  appearances,  so  that  an  object  shall  affect  us  first  of  all 
as  an  idealized  or  unreal  thing,  and  next  as  itself  a  sort  of  relation 
to  some  secondary  object  still  more  intensely  unreal,  we  shall  not 
attempt  to  describe ;  for  in  some  technical  points  we  should,  per- 
haps, fail  to  satisfy  the  reader;  and  without  technical  explana- 
tions we  could  not  satisfy  the  question.  But,  as  to  the  poet,  aU 
the  depths  of  philosophy  (at  least,  of  any  known  and  recognized 
philosophy)  would  less  avail  to  explain,  speculatively,  the  prin- 
ciples which,  in  such  a  case,  should  guide  him,  than  Shakespeare 
has  explained  by  his  practice.  The  problem  before  him  was  one 
of  his  own  suggesting;  the  difficulty  was  of  his  own  making.  It 
was,  so  to  differentiate  a  drama  that  it  might  stand  within  a 
drama,  precisely  as  a  painter  places  a  picture  within  a  picture ;  and 
therefore  that  the  secondary  or  inner  drama  should  be  non-realized 
upon  a  scale  that  would  throw,  by  comparison,  a  reflex  coloring  of 
reality  upon  the  principal  drama.  This  was  the  problem,  —  this 
was  the  thing  to  be  accomplished ;  and  the  secret,  the  law,  of  the 
process  by  which  he  accomplishes  this  is  to  swell,  tumefy,  stiffen, 
not  the  diction  only,  but  the  tenor  of  the  thought,  —  in  fact,  to 
stilt  it,  and  to  give  it  a  prominence  and  an  ambition  beyond  the 
scale  which  he  adopted  for  his  ordinary  life.  It  is,  of  course, 
therefore  in  rhyme,  —  an  artifice  which  Shakespeare  employs  with 
great  effect  on  other  similar  occasions  (that  is,  occasions  when  he 
wished  to  solemnize  or  in  any  way  differentiate  the  life)  ;  it  is 
condensed  and  massed  as  respects  the  flowing  of  the  thoughts ;  it 
is  rough  and  horrent  with  figures  in  strong  relief,  like  the  em- 
bossed gold  of  an  ancient  vase ;  and  the  movement  of  the  scene 
is  contracted  into  short  gyrations,  so  unlike  the  free  sweep  and 


358  BELATED   PARAGRAPHS 

expansion  of  his  general  developments.  —  De  Quincey:   Theory  of 
Greek  Tragedy. 

5.    The  Formation  of  Public  Opinion. 

The  simplest  form  in  which  public  opinion  presents  itself  is 
when  a  sentiment  spontaneously  arises  in  the  mind  and  flows  from 
the  lips  of  the  average  man  upon  his  seeing  or  hearing  something 
done  or  said.  Homer  presents  this  with  his  usual  vivid  directness 
in  the  line  which  frequently  recurs  in  the  Iliad,  when  the  effect 
produced  by  a  speech  or  event  is  to  be  conveyed :  "  And  thus  any 
one  was  saying  as  he  looked  at  his  neighbor."  This  phrase  de- 
scribes what  may  be  called  the  rudimentary  stage  of  opinion.  It 
is  the  prevalent  impression  of  the  moment.  It  is  what  any  man 
(not  every  man)  says,  i.e.  it  is  the  natural  and  the  general  thought 
or  wish  which  an  occurrence  evokes.  But  before  opinion  begins 
to  tell  upon  government,  it  has  to  go  through  several  other  stages. 
These  stages  are  various  in  different  ages  and  countries.  Let  us 
try  to  note  what  they  are  in  England  or  America  at  the  present 
time,  and  how  each  stage  grows  out  of  the  other. 

A  business  man  reads  in  his  newspaper  at  breakfast  the  events 
of  the  preceding  day.  He  reads  that  Prince  Bismarck  has  an- 
nounced a  policy  of  protection  for  German  industry,  or  that  Mr. 
Henry  George  has  been  nominated  for  the  mayoralty  of  New 
York.  These  statements  arouse  in  his  mind  sentiments  of  ap- 
proval or  disapproval,  which  may  be  strong  or  weak  according 
to  his  previous  predilection  for  or  against  protection  or  Mr. 
Henry  George,  and  of  course  according  to  his  personal  in- 
terest in  the  matter.  They  rouse  also  an  expectation  of 
certain  consequences  likely  to  follow.  Neither  the  sentiment 
nor  the  expectation  is  based  on  processes  of  conscious  reason- 
ing—  our  business  man  has  not  time  to  reason  at  breakfast  — 
they  are  merely  impressions  formed  on  the  spur  of  the  moment. 
He  turns  to  the  leading  article  in  the  newspaper,  and  his  senti- 
ments and  expectations  are  confirmed  or  weakened  according  as 
he  finds  that  they  are  or  are  not  shared  by  the  newspaper  writer. 
He  goes  down  to  his  office  in  the  train,  talks  there  to  two  or  three 
acquaintances,  and  perceives  that  they  agree  or  do  not  agree  with 
his  own  still  faint  impressions.  In  his  countiug-house  he  finds 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM.  359 

his  partner  and  a  bundle  of  other  newspapers  which  he  glances  at ; 
their  words  further  affect  him,  and  thus  by  the  end  of  the  day  his 
mind  is  beginning  to  settle  down  into  a  definite  view,  which  ap- 
proves or  condemns  Prince  Bismarck's  declaration  or  the  nomina- 
tion of  Mr.  George.  Meanwhile  a  similar  process  has  been  going 
on  in  the  mind  of  others,  and  particularly  of  the  journalists,  whose 
business  it  is  to  discover  what  people  are  thinking.  The  evening 
paper  has  collected  the  opinions  of  the  morning  papers,  and  it  is 
rather  more  positive  in  its  forecast  of  results.  Next  morning  the 
leading  party  journals  have  articles  still  more  definite  and  positive 
in  approval  or  condemnation  and  in  prediction  of  consequences  to 
follow  ;  and  the  opinion  of  ordinary  minds,  which  in  most  of  such 
minds  has  been  hitherto  fluid  and  undetermined,  has  begun  to 
crystallize  into  a  solid  mass.  This  is  the  second  stage.  Then  de- 
bate and  controversy  begin.  The  men  and  the  newspapers  who 
approve  Mr.  George's  nomination  argue  with  those  who  do  not; 
they  find  out  who  are  friends  and  who  opponents.  The  effect  of 
controversy  is  to  drive  the  partisans  on  either  side  from  some  of 
their  arguments,  which  are  shown  to  be  weak ;  to  confirm  them 
in  others,  which  they  think  strong ;  and  to  make  them  take  up  a 
definite  position  on  one  side.  This  is  the  third  stage.  The  fourth 
is  reached  when  action  becomes  necessary.  When  a  citizen  has  to 
give  a  vote,  he  votes  as  a  member  of  a  party ;  his  party  prepos- 
sessions and  party  allegiance  lay  hold  on  him,  and  generally  stifle 
any  individual  doubts  or  repulsions  he  may  feel.  Bringing  men 
up  to  the  polls  is  like  passing  a  steam  roller  over  stones  newly 
laid  on  a  road:  the  angularities  are  pressed  down,  and  an  appear- 
ance of  smooth  and  even  uniformity  is  given  which  did  not  exist 
before.  When  a  man  has  voted,  he  is  committed :  he  has  there- 
after an  interest  in  backing  the  view  which  he  has  sought  to  make 
prevail.  Moreover,  opinion,  which  may  have  been  manifold  till 
the  polling,  is  thereafter  generally  twofold  only.  There  is  a  view 
which  has  triumphed  and  a  view  which  has  been  vanquished. 

—  Bryce:  American  Commonwealth. 

6.    Carlyles  Laugh. 

None  of  the  many  sketches  of  Carlyle  that  have  been  published 
since  his  death  have  brought  out  quite  distinctly  enough  the  thing 


360  BELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

which  struck  me  more  forcibly  than  all  else,  when  in  the  actual 
presence  of  the  man ;  namely,  the  peculiar  quality  and  expression 
of  his  laugh.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  there  is  a  good  deal  in 
a  laugh.  One  of  the  most  telling  pieces  of  oratory  that  ever 
reached  my  ears  was  Victor  Hugo's  vindication,  at  the  Voltaire 
Centenary  in  Paris,  of  the  smile  of  Voltaire.  Certainly  Carlyle's 
laugh  was  not  like  that  smile,  but  it  was  something  as  inseparable 
from  his  personality,  and  as  essential  to  the  account,  when  making 
up  one's  estimate  of  him.  It  was  as  individually  characteristic  as 
his  face  or  his  dress,  or  his  way  of  talking  or  of  writing.  It  seemed 
indeed  indispensable  for  the  explanation  of  all  of  these.  I  found 
in  looking  back  upon  my  first  interview  with  him  that  all  I  had 
known  of  Carlyle  through  others,  or  through  his  own  books,  for 
twenty-five  years  had  been  utterly  defective, —  had  left  out,  in 
fact,  the  key  to  his  whole  nature,  —  inasmuch  as  nobody  had  ever 
described  to  me  his  laugh.  .  .  . 

After  the  most  vehement  tirade  he  would  suddenly  pause,  throw 
his  head  back,  and  give  as  genuine  and  kindly  a  laugh  as  I  ever 
heard  from  a  human  being.  It  was  not  the  bitter  laugh  of  a  cynic, 
nor  yet  the  big-bodied  laugh  of  the  burly  joker ;  least  of  all  was 
it  the  thin  and  rasping  cackle  of  the  dyspeptic  satirist.  But  it 
was  a  broad,  honest,  human  laugh,  which  beginning  in  the  brain, 
took  into  its  action  the  whole  heart  and  diaphragm,  and  instantly 
changed  the  worn  face  into  something  frank  and  even  winning, 
giving  to  it  an  expression  that  would  have  won  the  confidence  of 
any  child.  Nor  did  it  convey  the  impression  of  an  exceptional 
thing  that  had  occurred  for  the  first  time  that  day,  and  might 
never  happen  again.  It  rather  produced  the  effect  of  something 
habitual ;  of  being  the  channel,  well  worn  for  years,  by  which  the 
overflow  of  a  strong  nature  was  discharged.  It  cleared  the  air 
like  thunder,  and  left  the  atmosphere  sweet.  It  seemed  to  say  to 
himself,  if  not  to  us,  "  Do  not  let  us  take  this  too  seriously ;  it  is 
my  way  of  putting  things.  What  refuge  is  there  for  a  man  who 
looks  below  the  surface  in  a  world  like  this,  except  to  laugh  now 
and  then?**  The  laugh,  in  short,  revealed  the  humorist ;  if  I  said 
the  genial  humorist,  wearing  a  mask  of  grimness,  I  should  hardly 
go  too  far  for  the  impression  it  left.  At  any  rate  it  shifted  the 
ground,  and  transferred  the  whole  matter  to  that  realm  of  thought 
where  men  play  with  things.  The  instant  Carlyle  laughed,  he 


FOB  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  361 

seemed  to  take  the  counsel  of  his  old  friend  Emerson,  and  to  write 
upon  the  lintels  of  his  doorway,  "  Whim." 

—  Higginson :  A  tlantic,  48, 463-4. 

7.    Routing  a  Gondola. 

A  gondola  is  in  general  rowed  only  by  one  man,  standing  at  the 
stern ;  those  of  the  upper  classes  having  two  or  more  boatmen,  for 
greater  speed  and  magnificence.  In  order  to  raise  the  oar  suffi- 
ciently, it  rests,  not  on  the  side  of  the  boat,  but  on  a  piece  of  crooked 
timber  like  the  branch  of  a  tree,  rising  about  a  foot  from  the  boat's 
side,  and  called  a  "  fdrcola."  The  forcola  is  of  different  forms,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  and  uses  of  the  boat,  and  it  is  always  somewhat 
complicated  in  its  parts  and  curvature,  allowing  the  oar  various 
kinds  of  rests  and  catches  on  both  its  sides,  but  perfectly  free  play 
in  all  cases ;  as  the  management  of  the  boat  depends  on  the  gon- 
dolier's being  able  in  an  instant  to  place  his  oar  in  any  position. 
The  forcola  is  set  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  boat,  some  six  feet 
from  the  stern :  the  gondolier  stands  on  a  little  flat  platform  or 
deck  behind  it,  and  throws  nearly  the  entire  weight  of  his  body  upon 
the  forward  stroke.  The  effect  of  the  stroke  would  be  naturally  to 
turn  the  boat's  head  round  to  the  left,  as  well  as  to  send  it  for- 
ward ;  but  this  tendency  is  corrected  by  keeping  the  blade  of  the 
oar  under  the  water  on  the  return  stroke,  and  raising  it  gradually, 
as  a  full  spoon  is  raised  out  of  any  liquid,  so  that  the  blade  emerges 
from  the  water  only  an  instant  before  it  again  plunges.  A  down- 
ward and  lateral  pressure  upon  the  forcola  is  thus  obtained,  which 
entirely  counteracts  the  tendency  given  by  the  forward  stroke; 
and  the  effort,  after  a  little  practice,  becomes  hardly  conscious, 
though,  as  it  adds  some  labor  to  the  back  stroke,  rowing  a  gondola 
at  speed  is  hard  and  breathless  work,  though  it  appears  easy  and 
graceful  to  the  looker-on. 

If  then  the  gondola  is  to  be  turned  to  the  left,  the  forward  im- 
pulse  is  given  without  the  return  stroke;  if  it  is  to  be  turned  to 
the  right,  the  plunged  oar  is  brought  forcibly  up  to  the  surface ; 
in  either  case  a  single  stroke  being  enough  to  turn  the  light  and 
flat-bottomed  boat.  But  as  it  has  no  keel,  when  the  turn  is  made 
sharply,  as  out  of  one  canal  into  another  very  narrow  one,  the 
impetus  of  the  boat  in  its  former  direction  gives  it  an  enormous 
leeway,  and  it  drifts  laterally  up  against  the  wall  of  the  canal,  and 


362  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

that  so  forcibly,  that  if  it  has  turned  at  speed,  no  gondolier  can 
arrest  the  motion  merely  by  strength  or  rapidity  of  stroke  of  oar ; 
but  it  is  checked  by  a  strong  thrust  of  the  foot  against  the  wall  it- 
self, the  head  of  the  boat  being  of  course  turned  for  the  moment 
almost  completely  round  to  the  opposite  wall,  and  greater  exertion 
made  to  give  it,  as  quickly  as  possible,  impulse  in  the  new  direction. 

—  Ruskin :  Stones  of  Venice. 

8.    A  Fable  of  To-day. 

Two  astronomers  were  once  talking  about  the  other  side  of  the 
moon.  '<  I  think,"  said  the  first,  "  that  the  other  side  of  the  moon 
is  absolutely  and  perfectly  flat,  without  imperfection,  uneven  ness 
or  mark  of  any  kind."  "  It  may  be  so,"  replied  the  other.  "  But 
the  fact  that  the  side  which  we  see  is  very  rough  and  uneven  would 
seem  to  weigh  against  your  theory."  "  Xo  matter,"  said  the  first, 
**  our  society  holds  that  the  other  side  of  the  moon,  as  originally 
made,  is  without  error  or  imperfection  of  any  kind.  If  you  object 
to  this  you  may,  in  fact  you  roust,  retire  from  the  observatory." 
«*  But,"  said  the  other,  **  may  I  not  study  the  side  of  the  moon 
which  I  can  see? "  "  No,  indeed  1 "  was  the  reply.  "  No  man  can 
be  allowed  to  use  these  instruments  who  does  not  subscribe  to  the 
inerrancy  of  the  moon's  other  side ;  it's  a  fiat  doctrine  of  this  ob- 
servatory, and  must  be  believed,  in  order  to  the  right  seeing  of  any 
or  all  of  the  heavenly  bodies." 

Moral  >  This  is  a  very  simple  way  of  settling  such  questions. 
But  in  reality  the  decision  of  the  astronomer  did  not  affect  the 
facts,  nor  did  it  prevent  the  heretic  from  studying  the  face  of  the 
moon  which  was  visible,  —  New  York  Evangelist. 

9.    An  Act  repugnant  to  the  Constitution  cannot  become 
the  Law  of  the  Land. 

The  question  whether  an  act  repugnant  to  the  Constitution 
can  become  the  law  of  the  land  is  a  question  deeply  interesting  to 
the  United  States ;  but,  happily,  not  of  an  intricacy  proportioned 
to  its  interest.  It  seems  only  necessary  to  recognize  certain  princi- 
ples supposed  to  have  been  long  and  well  established  to  decide  it 

That  the  people  have  an  original  right  to  establish  for  their 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  363 

future  government  such  principles  as  in  their  opinion  shall  most 
conduce  to  their  own  happiness  is  the  basis  on  which  the  whole 
American  fabric  has  been  erected.  The  exercise  of  this  original 
right  is  a  very  great  exertion,  nor  can  it,  nor  ought  it  to  be  fre- 
quently repeated.  The  principles,  therefore,  so  established  are 
deemed  fundamental.  And  as  the  authority  from-  which  they 
proceed  is  supreme  and  can  seldom  act,  they  are  designed  to  be 
permanent. 

This  original  and  supreme  will  organizes  the  government,  and 
assigns  to  different  departments  their  repective  powers.  It  may 
either  stop  here  or  establish  certain  limits  not  to  be  transcended 
by  those  departments. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  is  of  the  latter  descrip- 
tion. The  powers  of  the  Legislature  are  denned  and  limited  ;  and 
that  those  limits  may  not  be  mistaken  or  forgotten  the  Constitu- 
tion is  written.  To  what  purpose  are  powers  limited  and  to  what 
purpose  is  the  limitation  committed  to  writing,  if  these  limits 
may  at  any  time  be  passed  by  those  intended  to  be  restrained  ? 
The  distinction  between  a  government  with  limited  and  unlimited 
powers  is  abolished  if  those  limits  do  not  confine  the  persons  on 
whom  they  are  imposed  and  if  acts  prohibited  and  acts  allowed 
are  of  equal  obligation.  It  is  a  proposition  too  plain  to  be  con- 
tested, that  the  Constitution  controls  any  legislative  act  repugnant 
to  it ;  or  that  the  Legislature  may  alter  the  Constitution  by  an 
ordinary  act. 

Between  these  alternatives  there  is  no  middle  ground.  The 
Constitution  is  either  a  superior,  paramount  law,  unchangeable 
by  ordinary  means,  or  it  is  on  a  level  with  ordinary  legislative 
acts,  and  like  other  acts  is  alterable  when  the  Legislature  shall 
please  to  alter  it. 

If  the  former  part  of  the  alternative  be  true,  then  a  legislative 
act  contrary  to  the  Constitution  is  not  law ;  if  the  latter  part  be 
true,  then  written  Constitutions  are  absurd  attempts  on  the  part 
of  the  people  to  limit  a  power  in  its  own  nature  illimitable. 

Certainly  all  those  who  have  framed  written  Constitutions  con- 
template them  as  forming  the  fundamental  and  paramount  law  of 
the  nation,  and  consequently  the  theory  of  every  such  government 
must  be  that  an  act  of  the  Legislature  repugnant  to  the  Constitu- 
tion is  void. 


364  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

This  theory  is  essentially  attached  to  a  written  Constitution, 
and  is  consequently  to  be  considered  by  this  court  as  one  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  our  society.  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be 
lost  sight  of  in  the  further  consideration  of  this  subject. 

If  an  act  of  the  Legislature  repugnant  to  the  Constitution  is 
void,  does  it,  notwithstanding  its  invalidity,  bind  the  courts  and 
oblige  them  to  give  it  effect?  Or,  in  other  words,  though  it  be  not 
law,  does  it  constitute  a  rule  as  operative  as  if  it  was  a  law  ?  This 
would  be  to  overthrow  in  fact  what  was  established  in  theory,  and 
would  seem,  at  first  view,  an  absurdity  too  gross  to  be  insisted  on. 
It  shall,  however,  receive  a  more  attentive  consideration. 

—  John  Marshall :  Constitutional  Decisions. 


10.    Corporations. 

A  corporation  is  an  artificial  being,  invisible,  intangible,  and 
existing  only  in  contemplation  of  law.  Being  the  mere  creature 
of  law,  it  possesses  only  those  properties  which  the  charter  of  its 
creation  confers  upon  it,  either  expressly,  or  as  incidental  to  its 
very  existence.  These  are  such  as  are  supposed  best  calculated 
to  effect  the  object  for  which  it  was  created.  Among  the  most 
important  are  immortality,  and,  if  the  expression  may  be  allowed, 
individuality ;  properties  by  which  a  perpetual  succession  of  many 
persons  are  considered  as  the  same  and  may  act  as  a  single  indi- 
vidual. They  enable  a  corporation  to  manage  its  own  affairs,  and 
to  hold  property  without  the  perplexing  intricacies,  the  hazardous 
and  endless  necessity,  of  perpetual  conveyances  for  the  purpose  of 
transmitting  it  from  hand  to  hand.  It  is  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  clothing  bodies  of  men,  in  succession,  with  these  qualities  and 
capacities,  that  corporations  were  invented  and  are  in  use.  By 
these  means  a  perpetual  succession  of  individuals  are  capable  of 
acting  for  the  promotion  of  the  particular  object,  like  one  immortal 
being.  But  this  being  does  not  share  in  the  civil  government  of 
the  country,  unless  that  be  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  created. 
Its  immortality  no  more  confers  on  it  political  power,  or  a  political 
character,  than  immortality  would  confer  such  power  or  character 
on  a  natural  person.  It  is  no  more  a  State  instrument  than  a 
natural  person  exercising  the  same  powers  would  be.  If,  then, 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  365 

a  natural  person,  employed  by  individuals  in  the  education  of 
youth,  or  for  the  government  of  a  seminary  in  which  youth  is 
educated,  would  not  become  a  public  officer,  or  be  considered 
as  a  member  of  the  civil  government,  how  is  it  that  this  artificial 
being,  created  by  law  for  the  purpose  of  being  employed  by  the 
same  individuals  for  the  same  purposes,  should  become  a  part  of 
the  civil  government  of  the  country  ?  Is  it  because  its  existence, 
its  capacities,  its  powers,  are  given  by  law  ?  Because  the  govern- 
ment has  given  it  the  power  to  take  and  to  hold  property  in  a  par- 
ticular form,  and  for  particular  purposes,  has  the  government  a 
consequent  right  substantially  to  change  that  form,  or  to  vary  the 
purposes  to  which  the  property  is  to  be  applied  ?  This  principle 
has  never  been  asserted  or  recognized,  and  is  supported  by  no 
authority.  Can  it  derive  aid  from  reason  ? 

The  objects  for  which  a  corporation  is  created  are  universally 
such  as  the  government  wishes  to  promote.  They  are  deemed 
beneficial  to  the  country ;  and  this  benefit  constitutes  the  con- 
sideration, and,  in  most  cases,  the  sole  consideration  of  the  grant. 
In  most  eleemosynary  institutions  the  object  would  be  difficult, 
perhaps  unattainable,  without  the  aid  of  a  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion. Charitable  or  public  spirited  individuals,  desirous  of  making 
permanent  appropriations  for  charitable  and  other  useful  purposes, 
find  it  impossible  to  effect  their  design  securely  and  certainly  with- 
out an  incorporating  act.  They  apply  to  the  government,  state 
their  beneficent  object,  and  offer  to  advance  the  money  necessary 
for  its  accomplishment,  provided  the  government  will  confer  on 
the  instrument  which  is  to  execute  their  designs  the  capacity  to 
execute  them.  The  proposition  is  considered  and  approved.  The 
benefit  to  the  public  is  considered  as  an  ample  compensation  for 
the  faculty  it  confers,  and  the  corporation  is  created.  If  the  ad- 
vantages to  the  public  constitute  a  full  compensation  for  the 
faculty  it  gives,  there  can  be  no  reason  for  exacting  a  further 
compensation,  by  claiming  a  right  to  exercise  over  this  artificial 
being  a  power  which  changes  its  nature,  and  touches  the  fund  for 
the  security  and  application  of  which  it  was  created.  There  can 
be  no  reason  for  implying  in  a  charter,  given  for  a  valuable  con- 
sideration, a  power  which  is  not  only  not  expressed,  but  is  in 
direct  contradiction  to  its  express  stipulations. 

—  John  Marshall:   Constitutional  Decisions. 


366  RELATED   PARAGRAPHS 


11.    An  Alpine  Adventure. 

We  at  length  .reached  the  point  at  which  it  was  necessary  to 
quit  our  morning's  track,  and  immediately  afterwards  got  upon 
some  steep  rocks  which  were  rendered  slippery  here  and  there  by 
the  water  which  trickled  over  them.  To  our  right  was  a  broad 
couloir,  which  was  once  filled  with  snow,  but  this  had  been  melted 
and  refrozen,  so  as  to  expose  a  sloping  wall  of  ice.  We  were  all 
tied  together  at  this  time  in  the  following  order :  Jeimi  led,  I 
came  next,  then  my  friend  H.,  our  intrepid  mountaineer,  then  his 
friend  L.,  and  last  of  all  the  guide  Walter.  L.  had  had  but  little 
experience  "of  the  higher  Alps,  and  was  placed  in  front  of  Walter, 
so  that  any  false  step  on  his  part  might  be  instantly  checked. 
After  descending  the  rocks  for  a  time,  Jenni  turned  and  asked  me 
whether  I  thought  it  better  to  adhere  to  them,  or  to  try  the  ice-slope 
to  our  right.  I  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  rocks;  but  he  seemed 
to  misunderstand  me,  and  turned  towards  the  couloir.  I  stopped 
him  before  he  reached  it,  and  said,  "Jenni,  you  know  where  you 
are  going,  the  slope  is  pure  ice  ?  n  He  replied,  "  I  know  it,  but  the 
ice  is  quite  bare  for  a  few  yards  only.  Across  this  exposed  por- 
tion I  will  cut  steps,  and  then  the  snow  which  covers  the  ice  will 
give  us  footing.*'  He  cut  the  steps,  reached  the  snow,  and  de- 
scended carefully  along  it  —  all  following  him,  apparently  in  good 
order.  After  a  little  time  he  stopped,  turned,  and  looked  upward 
at  the  last  three  men.  He  said  something  about  keeping  carefully 
to  the  tracks,  adding  that  a  false  step  might  detach  an  avalanche. 
The  word  was  scarcely  uttered  when  I  heard  the  sound  of  a  fall 
behind  me,  then  a  rush,  and  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  my 
two  friends  and  their  guide  — all  apparently  entangled  together, 
whirled  past  me.  I  suddenly  planted  myself  to  resist  their  shock, 
but  in  an  instant  I  was  in  their  wake,  for  their  impetus  was  irre- 
sistible. A  moment  afterwards  Jenni  was  whirled  away,  and  thus 
all  of  us  found  ourselves  riding  downwards  with  uncontrollable 
speed  on  the  back  of  an  avalanche  which  a  single  slip  had  origi- 
nated. 

When  thrown  back  by  the  jerk  of  the  rope,  I  turned  promptly 
on  my  face,  and  drove  my  baton  through  the  moving  snow,  seeking 
to  anchor  it  in  the  ice  underneath.  I  had  held  it  firmly  thus  for  a 


FOB  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  367 

few  seconds,  when  I  came  into  collision  with  some  obstacle,  and 
was  rudely  tossed  through  the  air,  Jenni  at  the  same  time  being 
shot  down  upon  me.  Both  of  us  here  lost  our  batons.  We  had, 
in  fact,  been  carried  over  a  crevasse,  had  hit  its  lower  edge,  our 
great  velocity  causing  us  to  be  pitched  beyond  it.  I  was  quite  be- 
wildered for  a  moment,  but  immediately  righted  myself,  and  could 
see  those  in  front  of  me  half  buried  in  the  snow,  and  jolted  from 
side  to  side  by  the  ruts,  among  which  they  were  passing.  Sud- 
denly I  saw  them  tumbled  over  by  a  lurch  of  the  avalanche,  and 
immediately  afterwards  found  myself  imitating  their  motion. 
This  was  caused  by  a  second  crevasse.  Jenni  knew  of  its  exist- 
ence, and  plunged  right  into  it  —  a  brave  and  manful  action,  but 
for  the  time  unavailing.  He  was  over  thirteen  stone  in  weight, 
and  he  thought  that  by  jumping  into  the  chasm  a  strain  might  be 
put  upon  the  rope  sufficient  to  check  the  motion.  He  was,  how- 
ever, violently  jerked  out  of  the  fissure,  and  almost  squeezed  to 
death  by  the  pressure  of  the  rope. 

A  long  slope  was  before  us,  which  led  directly  downwards  to  a 
brow  where  the  glacier  suddenly  fell  in  a  declivity  of  ice.  At  the 
base  of  this  declivity  the  glacier  was  cut  by  a  series  of  profound 
chasms;  and  towards  these  we  were  now  rapidly  borne.  The  three 
foremost  men  rode  upon  the  forehead  of  the  avalanche,  and  were 
at  times  almost  wholly  immersed  in  the  snow;  but  the  moving 
layer  was  thinner  behind,  and  Jenni  rose  incessantly,  and  with 
desperate  energy  drove  his  feet  into  the  firmer  substance  under- 
neath. His  voice  shouting,  "  Halt,  Herr  Jesus,  halt !  "  was  the  only 
one  heard  during  the  descent.  A  kind  of  condensed  memory, 
such  as  that  described  by  people  who  have  narrowly  escaped 
drowning,  took  possession  of  me  ;  and  I  thought  and  reasoned  with 
preternatural  clearness  as  I  rushed  along.  Our  start,  however, 
was  too  sudden,  and  the  excitement  too  great,  to  permit  of  the 
development  of  terror.  The  slope  at  one  place  became  less  steep, 
the  speed  visibly  slackened,  and  we  thought  we  were  coming  to 
rest;  the  avalanche,  however,  crossed  the  brow  which  terminated 
this  gentler  slope,  and  regained  its  motion.  Here  H.  drew  his 
arm  round  his  friend,  all  hope  for  the  time  being  extinguished, 
while  I  grasped  my  belt  and  struggled  for  an  instant  to  detach 
myself.  Finding  this  difficult,  I  resumed  the  pull  upon  the  rope. 
My  share  in  the  work  was,  I  fear,  infinitesimal;  but  Jenni's  power- 


368  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

ful  strain  made  itself  felt  at  last.  Aided  probably  by  a  slight 
change  of  inclination,  he  brought  the  whole  to  rest  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  chasm,  over  which,  had  we  preserved  our  speed,  a 
few  seconds  would  have  carried  us.  None  of  us  suffered  serious 
damage.  H.  emerged  from  the  snow  with  his  forehead  bleeding; 
but  the  wound  was  superficial.  Jenni  had  a  bit  of  flesh  removed 
from  his  hand  by  collision  against  a  stone;  the  pressure  of  the 
rope  had  left  black  welts  on  my  arms;  and  we  all  experienced  a 
tingling  sensation  over  the  hands,  like  that  produced  by  incipient 
frostbite,  which  continued  for  several  days.  I  found  a  portion  of 
my  watch-chain  hanging  round  my  neck,  another  portion  in  my 
pocket,  the  watch  itself  gone.  —  Tyndall :  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the 
Alps. 

12.    Travelling  in  Spain. 

Quitting  Manzanal,  we  continued  our  course.  We  soon  arrived 
at  the  verge  of  a  deep  valley  amongst  the  mountains  —  not  those 
of  the  chain  which  we  had  seen  before  us,  and  which  we  now  left 
to  the  right,  but  those  of  the  Telleno  range,  just  before  they  unite 
with  that  chain.  Round  the  sides  of  this  valley,  which  exhibited 
something  of  the  appearance  of  a  horseshoe,  wound  the  road  in  a 
circuitous  manner  ;  just  before  us,  however,  and  diverging  from  the 
road,  lay  a  foot-path,  which  seemed,  by  a  gradual  descent,  to  lead 
across  the  valley,  and  to  rejoin  the  road  on  the  other  side,  at  the 
distance  of  about  a  furlong ;  and  into  this  we  struck,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  circuit. 

We  had  not  gone  far  before  we  met  two  Galicians  on  their  way 
to  cut  the  harvests  of  Castile.  One  of  them  shouted,  "  Cavalier, 
turn  back :  in  a  moment  you  will  be  amongst  precipices,  where 
your  horses  will  break  their  necks,  for  we  ourselves  could  scarcely 
climb  them  on  foot."  The  other  cried,  "  Cavalier,  proceed,  but  be 
careful,  and  your  horses,  if  surefooted,  will  run  no  great  danger : 
my  comrade  is  a  fool."  A  violent  dispute  instantly  ensued  be- 
tween the  two  mountaineers,  each  supporting  his  opinion  with 
loud  oaths  and  curses ;  but  without  stopping  to  see  the  result,  I 
passed  on  ;  but  the  path  was  now  filled  with  stones  and  huge  slaty 
rocks,  on  which  my  horse  was  continually  slipping.  I  likewise 
heard  the  sound  of  water  in  a  deep  gorge,  which  I  had  hitherto 
not  perceived,  and  I  soon  saw  that  it  would  be  worse  than  mad- 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND   CRITICISM.  369 

ness  to  proceed.  I  turned  my  horse,  and  was  hastening  to  regain 
the  path  which  I  had  left,  when  Antonio,  my  faithful  Greek, 
pointed  out  to  me  a  meadow  by  which  he  said  we  might  regain 
the  high  road  much  lower  down  than  if  we  turned  on  our  steps. 
The  meadow  was  brilliant  with  short  green  grass,  and  in  the 
middle  there  was  a  small  rivulet  of  water.  I  spurred  my  horse  on, 
expecting  to  be  in  the  high  road  in  a  moment;  the  horse,  how- 
ever, snorted  and  stared  wildly,  and  was  evidently  unwilling  to 
cross  the  seemingly  inviting  spot.  I  thought  that  the  scent  of  a 
wolf  or  some  other  wild  animal  might  have  disturbed  him,  but 
was  soon  undeceived  by  his  sinking  up  to  the  knees  in  a  bog.  The 
animal  uttered  a  shrill,  sharp  neigh,  and  exhibited  every  sign  of 
the  greatest  terror,  making  at  the  same  time  great  efforts  to  ex- 
tricate himself,  and  plunging  forward,  but  every  moment  sinking 
deeper.  At  last  he  arrived  where  a  small  vein  of  rock  showed  it- 
self :  on  this  he  placed  his  fore  feet,  and  with  one  tremendous  ex- 
ertion freed  himself  from  the  deceitful  soil,  springing  over  the 
rivulet  and  alighting  on  comparatively  firm  ground,  where  he 
stood  panting,  his  heaving  sides  covered  with  a  foamy  sweat. 
Antonio,  who  had  observed  the  whole  scene,  afraid  to  venture 
forward,  returned  by  the  path  by  which  we  came,  and  shortly 
afterwards  rejoined  me.  This  adventure  brought  to  my  recollec- 
tion the  meadow  with  its  foot-path  which  tempted  Christian  from 
the  straight  road  to  heaven,  and  finally  conducted  him  to  the 
dominions  of  the  giant  Despair.  —  Borrow  :  The  Bible  in  Spain. 

13.    The  Wreck  of  the  Warren  Hastings. 

They  had  stopped  at  the  foot  of  the  cone,  which  was  between 
them  and  the  sea,  and  some  more  adventurous  had  climbed  partly 
up  it,  if  perhaps  they  might  see  further  than  their  fellows ;  but  in 
vain :  they  all  saw  and  heard  the  same  —  a  blinding  white  cal- 
dron of  white-driven  spray  below,  and  all  around,  filling  every 
cranny  —  the  howling  storm. 

A  quarter  of  an  hour  since  she  fired  last,  and  no  signs  of  her 
yet.  She  must  be  carrying  canvas  and  struggling  for  life,  ignorant 
of  the  four -knot  stream.  Some  one  says  she  may  have  gone  down 
—  hush  !  who  spoke  ? 

Old  Sam  Evans  had  spoken.     He  had  laid  his  hand  on  the 


370  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 

squire's  shoulder,  and  said,  "  There  she  is."  And  then  arose  a 
hubbub  of  talking  from  the  men,  and  every  one  crowded  on  his 
neighbor  and  tried  to  get  nearer.  And  the  women  moved  hur- 
riedly about,  some  moaning  to  themselves,  and  some  saying,  "  Ah, 
poor  dear  1  "  "  Ah,  dear  Lord !  there  she  is,  sure  enough." 

She  hove  in  sight  so  rapidly  that,  almost  as  soon  as  they  could 
be  sure  of  a  dark  object,  they  saw  that  it  was  a  ship  —  a  great  ship 
of  about  nine  hundred  tons ;  that  she  was  dismasted,  and  that  her 
decks  were  crowded.  They  could  see  that  she  was  unmanageable, 
turning  her  head  hither  and  thither  as  the  sea  struck  her,  and  that 
her  people  had  seen  the  cliff  at  the  same  moment,  for  they  were 
hurrying  aft,  and  crowding  on  to  the  bulwarks. 

Charles  and  his  guardians  crept  up  to  his  father's  party.  Densil 
was  standing  silent,  looking  on  the  lamentable  sight;  and,  as 
Charles  looked  at  him,  he  saw  a  tear  run  down  his  cheek,  and 
heard  him  say,  "  Poor  fellows!"  Cuthbert  stood  staring  intently 
at  the  ship,  with  his  lips  slightly  parted.  Mackworth,  like  one 
who  studies  a  picture,  held  his  elbow  in  one  hand,  and  kept  the 
other  over  his  mouth;  and  the  agent  cried  out,  "  A  troop-ship,  by 
gad.  Dear !  Dear  !  " 

It  is  a  sad  sight  to  see  a  fine  ship  beyond  control.  It  is  like 
seeing  one  one  loves  gone  mad.  Sad  under  any  circumstances; 
how  terrible  it  is  when  she  is  bearing  on  with  her  in  her  mad 
Bacchante's  dance  a  freight  of  living  human  creatures,  to  untimely 
destruction  i 

As  each  terrible  feature  and  circumstance  of  the  catastrophe 
became  apparent  to  the  lookers-on,  the  excitement  became  more 
intense.  Forward  and  in  the  waist,  there  was  a  considerable  body 
of  seamen  clustered  about  under  the  bulwarks — some  half-stripped. 
In  front  of  the  cuddy  door,  between  the  poop  and  the  mainmast, 
about  forty  soldiers  were  drawn  up,  with  whom  were  three  officers, 
to  be  distinguished  by  their  blue  coats  and  swords.  On  the  quarter- 
deck were  seven  or  eight  women,  two  apparently  ladies,  one  of  whom 
carried  a  baby.  A  well-dressed  man,  evidently  the  captain,  was 
with  them ;  but  the  cynosure  of  all  eyes  was  a  tall  man  in  white 
trousers,  at  once  and  correctly  judged  to  be  the  mate,  who  carried 
in  his  arms  a  little  girl. 

The  ship  was  going  straight  upon  the  rock,  now  only  marked 
as  a  whiter  spot  upon  the  whitened  sea,  and  she  was  fearfully 


FOR  ANALYSIS  AND  CRITICISM.  371 

near  it,  rolling  and  pitching,  turning  her  head  hither  and  thither, 
fighting  for  her  life.  She  had  taken  comparatively  little  water  on 
board  as  yet ;  but  now  a  great  sea  struck  her  forward,  and  she  swung 
with  her  bow  towards  the  rock,  from  which  she  was  distant  not  a 
hundred  yards.  The  end  was  coming.  Charles  saw  the  mate  slip 
off  his  coat  and  shirt,  and  take  the  little  girl  again.  He  saw  the 
lady  with  the  baby  rise  very  quietly  and  look  forward;  he  saw  the 
sailors  climbing  on  the  bulwarks;  he  saw  the  soldiers  standing 
steady  in  two  scarlet  lines  across  the  deck ;  he  saw  the  officers 
wave  their  hands  to  one  another,  and  then  he  hid  his  face  in  his 
hands,  and  sobbed  as  if  his  heart  would  break. 

They  told  him  after  how  the  end  had  come ;  she  had  lifted  up 
her  bows  defiantly,  and  brought  them  crashing  down  upon  the 
pitiless  rock  as  though  in  despair.  Then  her  stern  had  swung 
round,  and  a  merciful  sea  broke  over  her,  and  hid  her  from  their 
view,  though  above  the  storm  they  plainly  heard  her  brave  old 
timbers  crack ;  then  she  floated  off,  with  bulwarks  gone,  sinking, 
and  drifted  out  of  sight  round  the  headland,  and,  though  they 
raced  across  the  headland,  and  waited  a  few  breathless  minutes 
for  her  to  float  round  into  sight  again,  they  never  saw  her  any  more. 
The  Warren  Hastings  had  gone  down  in  fifteen  fathom.  And  now 
there  was  a  new  passion  introduced  into  the  tragedy,  to  which  it 
had  hitherto  been  a  stranger  —  Hope.  The  wreck  of  part  of  the 
mainmast  and  half  the  main  topmast,  which  they  had  seen,  before 
she  struck,  lumbering  the  deck,  had  floated  off,  and  there  were 
three,  four,  five  men  clinging  to  the  futtock  shrouds ;  and  then, 
they  saw  the  mate  with  the  child  hoist  himself  on  to  the  spar,  and 
part  his  dripping  hair  from  his  eyes. 

The  spar  had  floated  into  the  bay,  into  which  they  were  look- 
ing, into  much  calmer  water ;  but,  directly  to  leeward  the  swell 
was  tearing  at  the  black  slate  rocks,  and  in  ten  minutes  it  would 
be  on  them.  Every  man  saw  the  danger,  and  Densil,  running 
down  to  the  water's  edge,  cried  :  — 

"  Fifty  pound  to  any  one  who  will  take  'em  a  rope  1  Fifty  gold 
sovereigns  down  to-night !  Who's  going  ?  " 

Jim  Mathews  was  going,  and  had  been  going  before  he  heard 
of  the  fifty  pound  —  that  was  evident;  for  he  was  stripped,  and 
out  on  the  rocks  with  the  rope  round  his  waist.  He  stepped  from 
the  bank  of  slippery  seaweed  into  the  heaving  water,  and  then  his 


372  RELATED  PARAGRAPHS. 

magnificent  limbs  were  in  full  battle  with  the  tide.  A  roar  an- 
nounced his  success.  As  he  was  seen  clambering  on  to  the  spar, 
a  stouter  rope  was  paid  out ;  and  very  soon  it  and  its  burden  were 
high  and  dry  upon  the  little  half-moon  of  sand  which  ended  the 
bay.  —  Kingsley  :  Ravenshoe. 


APPENDIX   B. 

MATERIALS  FOR  SPECIAL  EXERCISES. 
Exercises  in  Paragraph  Unity. 

The  following  outlines  (or  similar  ones,  provided  by  the 
instructor,  and  better  adapted  to  the  grade  and  attainments 
of  the  class)  may  be  employed  in  a  profitable  exercise  for 
teaching  the  need  of  paragraphic  unity.  Let  one  of  the 
numbered  topics  of  an  outline  be  assigned  to  each  student. 
He  is  to  write  a  paragraph  on  his  topic  for  the  next  recita- 
tion, keeping  in  mind  what  ought  to  be  said  on  the  topics 
preceding  and  following  his  own,  and  determining  what 
properly  belongs  to  the  topic  assigned  to  himself.  At  the 
appointed  time,  the  paragraphs  are  read  in  their  numbered 
order  in  class,  together  forming  an  essay  on  the  subject. 
Any  intermingling  of  topics  or  violation  of  unity  is  criti- 
cised, transitions  between  sentences  and  paragraphs  are 
supplied,  various  methods  of  treating  the  same  topics  are 
compared,  and  the  need  that  each  student  "  stick  to  his 
text"  is  duly  enforced.  Such  points  as  choice  of  words, 
variety  of  expression,  and  construction  of  sentences  will 
also  call  for  attention.  It  has  been  found  profitable  to 
continue  this  work  for  several  recitations  and  at  intervals 
throughout  the  course. 

1.    Uses  of  Novel  Reading. 

1.  Introductory.     Increase  of  novel  reading  to  be  explained  by  its 

uses. 

2.  Affords  relaxation  and  entertainment. 

3.  A  valuable  aid  to  the  study  of  history  and  geography. 

373 


374  SPECIAL   EXERCISES  IN 

4.  Information  about  various  classes  of  society. 

5.  Reforms  brought  about  in  law,  education,  etc.     Dickens. 

6.  Insight  into  human  character,  making  the  reader  more  charita- 

ble in  his  judgments  of  others. 

7.  Conclusion.     A  summary. 

2.    Importance  of  Physical  Culture. 

1.  Promotes  health  and  prevents  disease. 

2.  Increases  strength  and  endurance. 

3.  Trains  the  muscles  to  act  with  accuracy,  making  more  efficient 

workers. 

4.  Influence  on  the  mind. 

5.  Moral  influence. 

3.    The  Combat.    (Scott's  "  Talisman.") 

1.  Time,  Third  Crusade.     Place,  the  Diamond  of  the  Desert.    Per- 

sons, Sir  Kenneth  and  Conrad. 

2.  Preparations, 
(a)    Arming. 

(6)   The  herald's  proclamation, 
(c)   Taking  positions. 
(</)   The  invocation. 

3.  The  encounter, 
(a)   Signal 
(fc)    Start. 

(c)   Career, 
(rf)   Meeting. 

4.  Result  of  the  combat.     Effect  in  settling  the  dispute. 

Classroom   Themes. 

As  a  corrective  for  the  bookishness  that  will  often  ap- 
pear in  the  paragraphs  written  outside  the  class,  it  will  be 
well  for  the  student  to  write  frequently,  in  the  classroom, 
paragraphs  on  simple  familiar  subjects.  The  time  for  writ- 
ing should  be  limited  to  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  members  of  the  class  should  be  called 


CLASSROOM   THEMES.  375 

upon  at  random  to  read  what  they  have  written,  the  class 
and  instructor  joining  in  the  criticism.  This  exercise  may 
be  continued  advantageously  throughout  the  course.  Con- 
stant practice  in  writing  under  pressure  produces  rapidity, 
facility,  naturalness,  and  individuality  of  expression.  At 
first  it  will  be  well  to  allow  each  student  to  select  his  own 
subject  and  to  determine  what  he  will  say  about  it,  before 
coming  to  the  class.  Later,  the  exercise  should  be  wholly 
impromptu.  Subjects  of  immediate  local  interest  about 
which  the  student  community  is  talking  and  thinking  at 
the  time  are  especially  valuable  for  this  impromptu  work. 
Subjects  which  have  come  up  during  the  week  in  the  his- 
tory and  literature  classes  may  also  be  utilized  in  this  work. 
The  following  are  printed  merely  to  show  the  range  and 
character  of  subjects  that  may  be  employed  in  this  connec- 
tion. They  are  necessarily  general  in  character,  whereas 
the  actual  subjects  given  should  be  specific.  The  instructor 
will  be  able  to  supplement  this  list  with  other  subjects  of 
more  immediate  interest  and  better  adapted  to  the  grade 
and  attainments  of  his  class.  A  choice  of  subjects  should, 
if  possible,  be  offered  at  all  times. 

1.  Why  do  many  dislike  the  study  of  rhetoric? 

2.  Advantages  of  literary  societies. 

3.  Proper  observance  of  Sunday  by  students. 

4.  Manners  in  the  classroom. 

5.  Advantages  of  the  work  in  manual  training. 

6.  What  does  the  school  most  need?    Reasons. 

7.  How  may  a  student  best  divide  his  time? 

8.  Some  of  the  uses  of  writing  frequently. 

9.  Why  we  lost  the  last  ball  game. 

10.  Why  I  like  or  dislike  the  last  book  I  read. 

11.  A  defence  of  Shylock. 

12.  Arguments  against  long  examinations. 

The  work  which  the  class  may  be  doing  in  other  branches 
of  study  will  frequently  suggest  numerous  themes  for  im- 


376  SPECIAL   EXERCISES  IN 

promptus.  Thus,  if  the  composition  class  is  also  working 
in  English  history,  themes  like  the  following  may  occasion- 
ally be  given :  — 

1.  Life  of  our  ancestors  in  Germany. 

2.  How  our  ancestors  punished  crime. 

3.  Roman  influences  in  England. 

4.  A  description  of  the  Conqueror's  reforms. 

5.  Wat  Tyler's  Rebellion. 

6.  The  scene  at  Runnyniede. 

7.  The  work  of  the  Star-chamber. 

8.  The  story  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

9.  Jack  Cade's  Rebellion. 

10.  Story  of  Thomas  a  Becket 

11.  Richard  and  the  princes. 

12.  The  Royal  Oak. 

13.  The  Spanish  Armada. 

Thus,  too,  if  the  composition  class  is  also  doing  work  in 
reading  and  studying  English  authors  or  American  authors, 
themes  in  abundance  may  be  chosen  in  the  direct  line  of 
their  work.  To  illustrate ;  a  class  studying  Longfellow,  and 
reading  some  of  his  poems,  might  properly  be  given  themes 
like  the  following :  — 

1.  Longfellow  at  Bowdoin  and  at  Harvard. 

2.  The  great  sorrow  of  Longfellow's  life. 

3.  How  Edgar  A.  Poe  regarded  Longfellow. 

4.  A  description  of  Longfellow's  home. 

5.  The  story  of  the  children's  armchair. 

6.  Longfellow's  friends. 

7.  The  main  points  of  Morituri  Salutamus. 

8.  Longfellow's  travels. 

9.  The  story  of  Evangeline. 

10.  The  story  of  Miles  Standish. 

11.  The  story  of  one  of  the  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 
IL!.    Longfellow's  ideas  of  slavery. 

13.   A  scene  from  Hiawatha. 


REPRODUCTIONS.  377 

Subjects  for  short  impromptus  in  narration  and  description 
are  found  in  abundance.  The  writing  of  such  paragraphs 
constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  newspaper  men, 
and,  indeed,  of  almost  all  writing,  and  a  large  amount  of 
such  practice  should  be  given.  The  list  appended  will  sug- 
gest the  class  of  subjects  suitable  for  this  work.  Others  of 
more  local  interest  should  be  provided. 

1.  A  description  of  a  sleighride. 

2.  A  report  of  the  last  lecture  I  heard. 

3.  How  I  spent  the  holidays. 

4.  The  coasting  party. 

5.  A  description  of  the  ball  game. 

6.  Antics  of  a  fountain  pen. 

7.  The  new  building. 

8.  Views  from  my  window. 

9.  The  room  in  which  we  recite. 

10.  The  reading  room. 

11.  A  day  camping. 

12.  My  experience  at  fishing. 

13.  A  personal  adventure. 

14.  Loss  of  a  trunk. 

15.  A  visit  to  an  art  gallery. 

16.  A  visit  to  a  machine  shop. 

17.  Below  the  falls  at  Niagara. 

18.  A  report  of  the  last  concert. 
10.  An  historical  incident. 

20.  A  story  from  General  Grant's  life. 

21.  A  letter  describing  my  school  life. 

22.  A  report  of  last  Sunday's  sermon. 

Reproductions. 

It  is  advisable,  in  beginning  this  work,  for  the  instructor, 
after  having  read  the  selection,  to  develop  with  the  class 
an  orderly  outline  of  topics  to  be  followed  by  all.  This 
will  be  found  advantageous  until  the  habit  of  detecting  the 
principal  points  of  a  selection  has  been  formed,  when  each 


378  SPECIAL  EXERCISES  IN 

student  may  be  left  to  make  his  own  selection  of  topics. 
The  following  directions  will  be  helpful  to  the  student  in 
making  his  outline :  (1)  Select  but  few  general  topics  and 
those  the  main  ideas  of  the  piece  read,  (2)  express  each 
topic  briefly  and  clearly,  (3)  do  not  repeat  the  same  idea 
in  two  or  more  places,  (4)  see  that  none  of  the  main  points 
are  omitted,  (5)  rearrange  the  topics  selected,  so  that  the 
order  will  be  natural. 

The  following  contain  selections  or  are  themselves  of 
suitable  length  for  reading  by  the  instructor,  outlining,  and 
reproduction  by  the  class  within  the  limits  of  a  recitation 
hour : — 

1.  Selections  from  Irving's  Sketch-Book. 

2.  Anderson's  Historical  Reader. 

3.  Swinton's  Studies  in  English  Literature. 

4.  Readings  from  English  History,  by  J.  R.  Green. 

5.  The  Student's  Reader,  by  Richard  Edwards. 

6.  Hawthorne's  Wonder-Book  and  Tangle  wood  Tales. 

7.  Hawthorne's  Twice-Told  Tales. 

8.  Garnett's  English  Prose  from  Elizabeth  to  Victoria. 

9.  Genung's  Rhetorical  Analysis. 

10.  Cathcart's  Literary  Reader. 

11.  Andrew  Lang's  Letters  to  Dead  Authors. 

12.  Hamerton's  Intellectual  Life. 

13.  Parton's  Life  of  Jackson. 

14.  Dickens's  Pickwick  Papers,  —  short  stories  in  Vol.  I.,  chaps. 

3,  6,  11,  13,  14,  portraits  in  chaps.  15,  17,  21,  25,  others  in 
Vol.  II. 

15.  Irving's  Tales  of  the  Alhambra. 

16.  Addison's  Vision  of  Mirza. 

17.  Burroughs's  Birds  and  Bees. 

18.  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address. 

19.  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 

20.  Lowell's  The  Singing  Leaves. 

21.  Matthew  Arnold's  The  Forsaken  Merman. 

22.  Whittier's  Skipper  Ireson's  Ride. 

23.  Bryant's  Ode  to  a  Waterfowl. 


REPRODUCTIONS.  379 

24.  Holmes's  Chambered  Nautilus. 

25.  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night. 

26.  Burns's  John  Barleycorn. 

27.  Longfellow's  Bell  of  Atri. 

28.  Leigh  Hunt's  Abou  Beu  Adhem. 

29.  Whittier's  Voices  of  Freedom. 

30.  Whittier's  Pipes  at  Lucknow. 

31.  Whittier's  Ballads. 

32.  Longfellow's  Shorter  Poems. 

33.  The  Humbler  Poets. 

34.  Proctor's  Half-hours  with  the  Stars. 

35.  Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare. 

36.  Scudder's  Book  of  Folk  Stories. 

37.  Lanier's  The  Boy's  King  Arthur. 

38.  Lanier's  The  Boy's  Percy. 

39.  Knox's  Boy  Travellers. 

40.  Burke's  Speeches. 

41.  Studies  from  Euripides.    (Motley's  Univ.  Libr.) 

42.  Hawthorne's  Grandfather's  Chair. 

43.  Thompson's  Green  Mountain  Boys. 

44.  Gray's  How  Plants  Behave. 

45.  Landor's  Imaginary  Conversations. 

46.  Bulwer's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 

47.  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

48.  Tennyson's  Sir  Galahad. 

49.  Whittier's  Tent  on  the  Beach  and  Snow-Bound. 

50.  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Grandfather. 

51.  Church's  Story  of  the  Iliad. 

52.  Church's  Story  of  the  ^neid. 

53.  Hanson's  Stories  from  Vergil. 

54.  Church's  Stories  from  Homer. 

55.  Winchell's  Sketches  of  Creation. 

56.  Church's  Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero. 

57.  Bret  Harte's  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp. 

58.  Selections  from  Plutarch's  Lives. 

59.  Selections  from  Pepys's  Diary. 

60.  Headley's  Napoleon  and  His  Marshals. 

61.  Thackeray's  Roundabout  Papers. 

62.  Gayley's  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature. 


380  SPECIAL  EXERCISES  IN 

Paraphrases  and  Abstracts. 

(Outside  Work.) 

The  following  list  is  made  up  of  books  containing  chap- 
ters especially  adapted  to  this  work,  and  of  articles,  or 
essays,  in  which  the  plan  of  construction  is  prominent  and 
admirable.  The  selections  are  too  long  for  reading  in  class 
and  are  intended  for  special  assignment  as  outside  work,  a 
written  paraphrase,  abstract,  or  outline  to  be  presented  in 
class  by  the  student. 

1.  Parsons.     The  Saloon  in  Society.     Atlantic,  59 :  86. 

2.  Cable.     The  Freedman's  Case  in  Equity.     Century,  7 :  409. 

3.  Cable.    The  Silent  South.     Century,  8  :  674. 

4.  Landor.     Steele  and  Addison.     Works,  Vol.  5. 

5.  De  Foe.    The  Fire  of  London. 

6.  Johnson.     Life  of  Addison.     • 

7.  Macaulay.     Essay  on  History. 

8.  Quincy.     Invasion  of  Canada.     Speeches,  p.  355. 

9.  Sumner.     Are  We  a  Nation  ?    Works,  12  : 191. 

10.  Sumner.     No  Property  in  Man.     Works,  8 :  359. 

11.  Sumner.     Duties  of  Massachusetts.     Works,  3  : 121. 

12.  Everett.     American  Literature.     Orations,  1. 

13.  Webster.     The  Constitution  not  a  Compact.     Works,  3. 

14.  Lowell.     The  Independent  in  Politics.     Essays,  295. 

15.  Walker.     Socialism.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  1 :  107. 

16.  Lowell.     Democracy,    p.  3-42. 

17.  Macaulay.     On  the  Athenian  Orators. 

18.  Short.     Claims  to  the  Discovery  of  America.     Galaxy,  20 :  50 

19.  Fiske.     The  Federal  Union.     Harper,  70 : 407. 

20.  Higginson.     The  Era  of  Good  Feeling.     Harper,  68 :  936. 
•Jl.  Kingsley.     The  Fount  of  Science.     Nat'l  Sermons,  108-133. 

22.  George  Eliot.     Address  to  Working  Men.     Essays,  322. 

23.  Whately.     Historic  Doubts  Relative  to  Napoleon,    p.  11-85. 

24.  Dawes.     An  Unknown  Nation.     Harper,  76  : 598. 

25.  Warner.     Comments  on  Canada.     Harper,  78 :  520. 

26.  Sill.     Should  a  College  Educate?    Atlantic,  56 : 207. 

27.  White.    On  Reading  Shakespeare.     Galaxy,  22  : 518, 


PARAPHRASES  AND  ABSTRACTS.  381 

28.  House.     The  Thraldom  of  Japan.     Atlantic,  60  :  721. 

29.  Mulford.     The  Object  of  a  University.     Atlantic,  58 : 757. 

30.  Powell.     The  Failure  of  Protection.     Fraser,  104  :  99. 

31.  Fronde.     The  Book  of  Job.     Short  Studies,  1 :  228. 

32.  Howell.     Strikes.     Fraser,  101  : 118. 

33.  Black.   The  Electoral  Conspiracy.     No.  Am.,  125 : 1. 

34.  White.     Popular  Pie.     Galaxy,  18  : 532. 

35.  White.     Americanisms.     Galaxy,  24  :  376. 

36.  Gladstone.     Kin  beyond  Sea.     Gleanings,  1 :  203. 

37.  Gladstone.     Aggressions  on  Egypt.     Gleanings,  4  :  341. 

38.  Gladstone.     Work  of  Universities.     Gleanings,  7: 1. 

39.  Gladstone.     Wedgwood.     Gleanings,  2  : 181. 

40.  Froude.     England's  War.     Short  Studies,  2:382. 

41.  Froude.     Party  Politics.     Short  Studies,  3 :  309. 

42.  Freeman.     George  Washington.     Greater  Greece,  etc.,  62. 

43.  Green,     ^neas.     Studies,  etc.,  227. 

44.  Welles.     History  of  Emancipation.     Galaxy,  14  :  838. 

45.  Coan.     The  Value  of  life.     Galaxy,  15 :  751. 

46.  Spencer.    Philosophy  of  Style.     Essays,  9. 

47.  Sumner.   Politics  in  America.     No.  Am.,  122  : 47. 

48.  Roosevelt.     Recent  Criticism  of    America.     Murray's  Mag., 

4 : 289. 

49.  Arnold.     General  Grant.    Murray's  Mag.,  1 : 130. 

50.  Allen.     Land-owning  and  Copyright.     Fraser,  102  :  343. 

51.  Howell.     Trades  Unions.     Fraser,  99  : 22. 

52.  Arnold.    Introducion  to  Wordsworth's  Poems. 

53.  Arnold.     Literature  and  Dogma. 

54.  Arnold.     Introduction  to  Johnson's  Chief  Lives. 

55.  Arnold.     Introduction  to  Ward's  English  Poets. 

56.  Taine.   Introduction  to  History  of  English  Literature. 

57.  De  Quincey.     Essay  on  English  Language.     Works,  3. 

58.  Fiske.     Manifest  Destiny.     Essays. 

59.  Tyndall.     Scientific  Use  of  the  Imagination. 

60.  Bagehot.    Physics  and  Politics. 

61.  Bagehot.     f  he  English  Constitution  and  Other  Essays, 
62  Lecky.     History  of  Rationalism. 

63.  Mill.    Dissertations  and  Discussions. 

64.  Fiske.    Darwinism  and  Other  Essays.. 

65.  Pater,    Appreciation^ 


382  SPECIAL  EXERCISES  IN 

66.  Cleveland.     The  Venezuelan   Boundary  Controversy.     Cent- 

ury, 62 : 283  and  405. 

67.  Matthews.     The   Simplification   of  English   Spelling.     Cent- 

ury, 62:617. 

68.  Winchester.     John  Wesley.     Century,  66  :  389  and  492. 

69.  Parsons.     The  Panama  Canal.     Century,  71 : 138. 

70.  Bolles.     The  Rights  and  Methods  of    Labor  Organizations. 

No.  Am.,  176 :  410. 

71.  An  American  Business  Man.     The  Monroe  Doctrine  a  Bar  to 

Civilization.     No.  Am.,  176  :  518. 

72.  Charlton.   Canada  and  Reciprocity.   No.  Am.,  178 :  205. 

73.  Crichfield.      The  Panama  Canal  from  a  Contractor's  Stand- 

point.    No.  Am.,  180  : 74. 

74.  Beach.     Educational  Reciprocity.     No.  Am.,  183  :  611. 

75.  Meade.     The  Coal  Supremacy  of  the  United  States.     Forum, 

30:220. 

76.  Haralin.     A  Plea  for  Architectural  Studies.     Forum,  31 :  626. 

77.  Ayers.   Color  Blindness  in  Art.     Cent., 73  : 876. 

78.  Van   Dyke.     The    Americanism    of    Washington.      Harper, 

113:770. 

79.  Wyckoff.   Some  Phases  of  Trade  Unionism.    Scribner,  34  : 495. 

Rhetorical  Analysis. 

1.  Let  each  student  read  one  of  the  stories,  essays,  or 
speeches  referred  to  in  the   list  below.     The  essays  and 
speeches  will  be  the  best  to  begin  the  work  with. 

2.  As  he  reads  he  should  write  in  his  note-book,  (1)  the 
theme  of  each  paragraph ;  (2)  the  function  of  each  para- 
graph, whether  transitional,  directive,  amplifying,  illustra- 
tive, etc. ;  (3)  he  should  note  what  bearing  each  paragraph 
has  upon  the  subject  of  the  whole  selection  and  how  it  car- 
ries forward  the  plan  as  a  whole;  (4)  he  should  make  from 
his  notes  a  connected  synopsis  of  the  selection. 

3.  At  a  subsequent  meeting  of  the  class,  the  members 
report,  the  selections  are  reproduced  orally  from  the  synop- 
sis, and  any  paragraph  whose  function  could  not  be  deter- 


RHETORICAL  ANALYSIS.  383 

mined  is  read  in  full  and  criticised  or  explained  by  the 
class. 

4.  In  the  case  of  the  longer  selections,  report  the  main 
points  and  make  a  synopsis  of  the  whole  selection  ;  but  de- 
termine the  rhetorical  functions  of  only  a  reasonable  num- 
ber of  the  paragraphs.     The  work  may  be  done  piecemeal, 
the  student  reporting  a  part  of  his  analysis  from  week  to 
week.     Copy  and  bring  into  class  for  criticism  and  discus- 
sion whole  paragraphs  about  which  there  is  doubt  when 
read. 

5.  For  the  first  exercise  let  all  the  class  analyze  the  same 
speech  or  essay. 

1.  Stories. 

1.  Aldrich.     Marjorie  Daw.     Atlan.,  31 : 407. 

2.  Hawthorne.     The  Gentle  Boy. 

3.  Higginson.     A  Charge  with  Prince  Rupert     Atlan.,  3  : 725. 

4.  Hale.   The  Man  Without  a  Country.     Atlan.,  12  : 605. 

5.  Jewett     The  Shore  House.     Atlan.,  32  : 358. 

6.  Eggleston.     Gunpowder  Plot.     ScribDer,  2 :  252. 

7.  Davis.     Life  in  the  Iron  Mills.     Atlan.,  7  :  430. 

8.  Hale.    My  Double  and  How  He  Undid  Me.     Atlan.,  4 :  356. 

9.  Higginson.     The  Puritan  Minister.     Atlan.,  Essays,  191. 

10.  Howells.     A  Pedestrian  Tour.     Atlan.,  24  :  591. 

11.  Higginson.    A  Night  in  the  Water.     Atlan.,  14 :  393. 

12.  Burroughs.     Tragedies  of  the  Nests.     Century,  4  :  680. 

13.  Burroughs.     Signs  and  Seasons.     Century,  3 :  672. 

14.  Bishop.     Braxton's  New  Art.    Century,  6  :  871. 

15.  Bunner.     The  Red  Silk  Handkerchief.     Century,  6 : 275. 

16.  Stockton.     Wreck  of  the  Thomas  Hyke.     Century,  6  :  587. 

17.  Janvier.    Orpiment  and  Gamboge.     Century,  7  :  397. 

18.  Foote.     A  Cloud  on  the  Mountain.     Century,  9 : 28. 

19.  Jackson.     The  Mystery  of  William  Riitter.     Century,  9  : 103. 

20.  Boyesen.     A  Child  of  the  Age.     Century,  9 : 177. 

21.  Clemens.     The  Private  History  of  a  Campaign  that  Failed 

Century,  9:193. 

22.  Matthews.     Perturbed  Spirits.     Century,  10 : 74. 

23.  Page.     A  Soldier  of  the  Empire.     Century,  10 :  918. 


384  SPECIAL   EXERCISES  IX 

24.  Harte.     Left  out  on  Lone  Star  Mountain.     Longm.,  3  : 259. 

25.  Dodge.      Pursuit  of   Knowledge  under   Difficulties.     Allan., 

5 : 272,  417. 

26.  Thanet.     Day  of  the  Cyclone.     Scribner  (X.  S.),  3:  350. 

27.  Haggard.     Mai wa's  Revenge.     Harper,  77  : 181. 

28.  Harte.     An  Apostle  of  the  Tules.     Longm.,  1885 :  67. 

29.  Wilson.      Tale   of   Expiation.      Recreations  of   Christopher 

North,  p.  33. 

30.  Aldrich.     A  Midnight  Fantasy.     Atlan.,35:  385. 

31.  Phelps.    In  the  Gray  Goth.      Atlan.,  6 :  587. 

32.  Jewett.     Deephaven  Cronies.     Atlan.,  36:316. 

33.  James.    The  Last  of  the  Valerii.     Atlan.,  33 : 169. 

34.  Taylor.     Who  was  She?    Atlaii., 34 : 257. 

35.  Stockton.     Our  Story.     Century,  4 :  762. 

36.  Aldrich.     A  Struggle  for  Life.     Atlan.,  20  :  56. 

37.  A  Story  of  Assisted  Fate.     Atlan.,  55 : 58. 

38.  Taylor.     A  Week  on  Capri.     Atlan.,21  :740. 

39.  Howells.     A  Shaker  Village.     Atlan.,  37  :  699. 

40.  Lowell.      A   Pocket    Celebration    of    the    Fourth.      AtlanM 

2 : 374. 

41.  Hawthorne.     Ethan  Brand.     (In  the  Snow  Image,  etc.) 

42.  Cable.     Don  Joaquin.     Harper,  52:281. 

43.  McCarthy.     Wanted  — A  Soul.     Harper,  22 :  549. 

44.  Woolson.    Miss  Vedder.     Harper,  58  :  590. 

45.  Davis.     A  Story  of  the  Plague.     Harper,  58 : 443. 

46.  Stockton.     The  Transferred  Ghost    Century,  2  : 43. 

47.  McDonald.     The  Portent.     Cornh.,  1 :  617,  670 ;  2 : 74. 

48.  Gray.     The  Silver  Casket.     Murray's  Mag.,  2 :  203. 

49.  Hardy.     The  Waiting  Supper.     Murray's  Mag.,  3  :  42,  199. 

50.  Appleton.     A  Half-Life  and  Half  a  Life.     Atlantic  Stories. 

51.  Whelpley.     The  Denslow  Palace.     Atlantic  Stories. 

52.  Cooke.     Miss  Lucinda.     Atlantic  Stories. 

53.  Hale.    The  Queen  of  the  Red  Chessmen.     Atlantic  Stories. 

54.  Nordhoff.    Elkauah  Brewster's  Temptation.   Atlantic  Stories. 

55.  Chesbro.     Victor  and  Jacqueline.     Atlantic  Stories. 

56.  Arnold.    Why  Thomas  Was  Discharged.     Atlantic  Stories. 

57.  Lowell.     A  Raft  that  Xo  Man  Made.     Atlantic  Stories. 

58.  O'Brien.     The  Diamond  Lens.     Atlantic  Stories. 

59.  Jewett.     Marsh  Rosemary.     Atlan.,  57  :  590. 


RHETORICAL  ANALYSIS.  385 

60.  De  Quincey.     Joan  of  Arc. 

61.  Thackeray.     The  Fatal  Boots. 

62.  Craddock.     His  Day  in  Court.     Harper,  76  :  56. 

63.  Matthews.     A  Secret  of  the  Sea.     Harper,  71 ;  78. 

64.  Bishop.     Choy  Susan.     Atlan.,  54: 1. 

65.  Hawthorne.     Ken's  Mystery.     Harper,  67  :  925. 

66.  Jewett.     King  of  Folly  Island.     Harper,  74 : 10. 

67.  Frederic.     Brother  Angelus.     Harper,  73 :  517. 

68.  Craddock.     Lonesome  Cove.     Harper,  72  : 128. 

69.  Reade.     Tit  for  Tat.     Harper,  66 :  251. 

70.  Boyesen.     A  Dangerous  Virtue.     Scribner,  21 : 745. 

71.  Boyesen.     The  Man  who  Lost  his  Name.     Scribner,  12 :  808. 

72.  Clemens.     A  Curious  Experience.     Century,  1 :  35. 

73.  Phelps.     The  Tenth  of  January.     Atlan.,  21 :  345. 

74.  Bishop.     The  Brown-Stone  Boy.     Atlan. ,55:  330. 

75.  Taylor.     Friend  Eli's  Daughter.     Atlan.,  10 :  99. 

76.  Thackeray.     Bluebeard's  Ghost 

77.  James.     The  Romance  of  Certain  Old  Clothes. 

78.  Aldrich.     A  Ri vermouth  Romance.     Atlan.,  30 : 157. 

79.  Dickens.     Wreck  of  the  Golden  Mary. 

80.  Dickens.     George  Silverman's  Explanation. 

81.  Mitchell.     A  Comedy  of  Conscience.     Century,  61 : 323. 

82.  Phelps.     F6e.     Century,  61: 671. 

83.  Page.     Bred  in  the  Bone.     Century,  64  : 331. 

84.  Norris.     A  Lost  Story.     Century,  66:  371. 

85.  Deland.    The  White  Feather.     Century,  68 :  440. 

86.  London.     The  Gold  Canon.     Century,  71 : 117. 

87.  Rice.     The  Wild  Oats  of  a  Spinster.     Century,  72  : 323. 

88.  Briscoe.     His  Prerogative.     Harper,  107 : 197. 

89.  Deland.     Amelia.     Harper,  107  :  384. 

90.  Freeman.     The  Butterfly.     Harper,  107  : 441. 

91.  Deland.     The  Note.     Harper,  107 :  497. 

92.  Deland.     An  Exceeding  High  Mountain.     Harper,  107  :  893. 

93.  Twain.     A  Dog's  Tale.     Harper,  108  : 11. 

94.  Freeman.     The  Revolt  of  Sophia  Lane.     Harper,  108:20. 

95.  Benedict.     A  Portrait  by  Collyer.     Harper,  114 :  792. 

96.  Howells.     The  Eidolons  of  Brooks  Alford.     Harper,  113  :  387. 

97.  Conrad.     An  Anarchist.     Harper,  113  :  406. 

98.  Phelps.     Unemployed.     Harper,  113: 904. 


386  SPECIAL  EXERCISES  IN 

99.  Pyle.     A  Life  for  a  Life.     Scribner,  27  :  61. 

100.  Van  Dyke.     The  Light  that  Failed  not     Scribner,  27  :  405. 

101.  James.     The  Tone  of  Time.     Scribner,  28 : 624. 

102.  Davis.     A  Derelict     Scribner,  30 : 131. 

103.  Smith.     The  Turquoise  Cup.     Scribner,  30  :  671. 

104.  Davis.     The  Bar  Sinister.     Scribner,  30 :  307. 

105.  Kipling.     Wireless.     Scribner,  32 : 129. 

106.  Barnes.     The  String  of  Pearls.     Scribner,  32  :  305. 

107.  Williams.     The  Burglar  and  the  Lady.     Scribner,  34 : 173. 

108.  Wharton.     The  Descent  of  Man.     Scribner,  35  : 315. 

109.  Tompkins.     The  Boy  Joke.     Scribner,  41 : 107. 

110.  Smith.     What  Really  Happened.     Scribner,  40 : 156. 

111.  Page.     A  Brother  to  Diogenes.     Scribner,  39 :  290. 

112.  Thackeray.     Rebecca  and  Rowena.     In  Christmas  Books. 

113.  Bishop.     One  of  the  Thirty  Pieces.     Atlan.,  37  : 43. 

114.  Hale.     The  Modern  Psyche.     Harper,  51 : 885. 

115.  Stevenson.     The  Merry  Men. 

116.  Lamb.     Adventures  of  Ulysses. 

117.  Pyle.     Stephen  Wycherley.     Harper,  75 :  56. 

118.  Woolsou.     A  Flower  of  the  Snow.     Galaxy,  17 : 76. 

a.  Essays,  Speeches,  Sketches. 

1.  Representative  British  Orations.     3  vols. 

2.  Representative  American  Orations.     3  vols. 

3.  Huntington.     A  Plea  for  Railway  Consolidation.     No.  Am., 

153  : 272. 

4.  Livermore.      Cooperative   Womanhood  in  the  State.     No. 

Am.,  153 : 283. 

5.  Douglass.     Hayti  and  the  United  States.     No.  Am.,  153  : 337. 

6.  Bryce.     Thoughts  on  the  Negro   Problem.     No.  Am.,  153: 

641. 

7.  Luce.     Benefits  of  War.     No.  Am.,  153  :  672. 

8.  Powderly.     The  Workingman  and  Free   Silver.     No.   Am., 

153:728. 

9.  Hubert.     The  New  Talking  Machines.     Atlan.,  63 : 256. 

10.  Parkman.     The  Acadian  Tragedy.     Harper,  69  : 877. 

11.  Starbuck.     Hawthorne.     Andover  Review,  7:  31. 

12.  Phelps,     Shylock  vs.  Antonio.     Atlan.,  57  : 463. 


RHETORICAL  ANALYSIS.  387 

13.  Long.     Of  Style.     An  Old  Man's  Thoughts. 

14.  Locksley  Hall  and  Sixty  Years  After.     Poet  Lore,  Jan.  1893. 

15.  Davis.     Shakespeare's  Miranda  and  Tennyson's  Elaine.     Poet 

Lore,  Jan.  1893. 

16.  Stoddard.     The  English  Laureates.     Cosmop.  Jan.  1893. 

17.  Billson.     The  English  Novel.     Westminster  Rev.  Jan.  1893. 

18.  Rogers.     G.    W.  Curtis  and   Civil  Service  Reform.     Atlan. 

Jan.  1893. 

19.  Johnson.     The  Transformation  of  Energy.     Westmin.  Rev. 

Dec.  1892. 

20.  White.     Homes  of  the  Poor.     Chautauquan,  Jan.,  1893. 

21.  Bartlett.     The  Prison   Question.     Am.  Jour.   Politics,  Jan. 

1893. 

22.  Higginson.     Boston.     St.  Nicholas,  Jan.  1893. 

23.  Acworth.     Railway  Mismanagement.     19th  Cent.  Dec.  1892. 

24.  Brooke.     Tennyson.     Con  temp.  Rev.  Dec.  1893. 

25.  Mace'.     Universal  Suffrage  in  France.     No.  Am.  Jan.  1893. 

26.  Dodge.     A  Bible   Lesson  for    Herbert    Spencer.     No.   Am. 

Jan.  1893. 

27.  Williams.      The    Kindergarten    Movement.     Century,    Jan. 

1893. 

28.  Flower.     Are  We  a  Prosperous  People?    Arena,  Jan.  1893. 

29.  Hadley.    Jay  Gould  and  Socialism.     Forum,  Jan.  1893. 

30.  Campbell.     Women  Wage  Earners.     Arena,  Jan.  1893. 

31.  Hadley.     Ethics   as    a    Political   Science.     Yale   Rev.   Nov. 

1892. 

32.  Gosse.     Tennyson.     New  Rev.  Nov.  1892. 

33.  Kingsley.     English  Literature.     Lit.  and  Gen.  Essays,  245. 

34.  Repplier.     Benefits  of  Superstition.     Books  and  Men,  33. 

35.  Dawkins.     Settlement  of  Wales.     Fort.  Rev.  Oct.  1892. 

36.  Edmunds.     Politics  as  a  Career.     Forum,  Dec.  1892. 

37.  Scudder.     The  Place  of  College  Settlements.     Andover  Rev. 

Oct.  1892. 

38.  Adams.     Municipal  Government.     Forum,  Nov.  1892. 

39.  Andrews.     Are  there  too  Many  of  Us.     No.  Am.  Nov.  1892. 

40.  Mathews.     Two  Studies  of  the  South.    Cosmop.  Nov.  1892. 

41.  Cable.    Education  for  the  South.     Cosmop.  Nov.  1892. 

42.  Walsh.    The  Ethics  of  Great  Strikes.     No.  Am.  Oct.  1892. 

43.  Gunsaulus.     The  Ideal  of  Culture.     Chautauquan,  Oct.  1892. 


388  SPECIAL   EXERCISES  IN 

44.  Stoddard.    James  Russell  Lowell.     Lippincott,  Oct.  1892. 

45.  Garner.      Monkey's   Academy   in    Africa.     New   Rev.  Sept 

1892. 

46.  Lowell.     Old  English  Dramatists.     Harper,  June-Sept.  1892. 

47.  Patmore.     Three  Essayettes.     Fort.  Rev.  July  1892. 

48.  Adams.     Some  Recent  Novels.     Fort.  Rev.  July  1892. 

49.  Johnson.     The  First  University.     Westmin.  Rev.  Sept.  1892. 

50.  Flower.     The  Menace  of  Plutocracy.     Arena,  Sept.  1892. 

51.  Habberton.     Social  Science  in  Business  Life.     Chautauquan, 

Sept  1892. 

52.  Besant.     Literature  as  a  Career.     Forum,  Aug.  1892. 

53.  Farrar.      Shaftesbury's   Work     among  the    London     Poor. 

Meth.  Mag.  Aug.  1892. 

54.  Woodbury.     Shelley's  Work.     Century,  Aug.  1892.    • 

55.  Repplier.     Wit  and  Humor.     Atlan.  Dec.  1892. 

56.  Fowler.     Whittier  and  Tennyson.     Arena,  Dec.  1892. 

57.  Gladden.     The  Problem  of  Poverty.     Century,  Dec.  1892. 

58.  Smith.     Arnold  of  Rugby.     Educ.  Rev.  Dec.  1892. 

59.  Nevinson.    Goethe  as  a  Minister  of  State.    Contemp.  Rev. 

Nov.  1892. 

60.  Gladstone.     Did  Dante  Study  in  Oxford  ?    Nineteenth  Cent. 

June  189'>. 

61.  Schwatka.     Land  of  the  Living  Cliff  Dwellers.    Century, 

June  1892. 

62.  Bellamy.     Progress  of  National  ism  in  the  United  States.    No. 

Am.  June  1892. 

63.  Bigelow.     Bismarck.    Contemp.  Rev.  May  1892. 

64.  Parke.     How  General  Gordon  was  Really  Lost.     Nineteenth 

Cent.  May  1892. 

65.  Eddy.     My  Business   Partner  — the   Government.     Forum, 

May  1892. 

66.  Tyndall.     Coast  Protection.    New  Rev.  April  1892. 

67.  Mooney.     Catholic    Controversy    about    Education.     Educ. 

Rev.  March  1893. 

68.  Hanus.     The  Influence  of  Comenius.    Educ.  Rev.  March  1892. 

69.  Gladden.     The  Plain  Path  of  Reform.     Charities  Review, 

April  1892. 

70.  Delboef.     Criminal  Suggestion  by  Hypnotism.     Monist,  April 

1892. 


RHETORICAL  ANALYSIS.  389 

71.  Bradley.     Patrick  Henry.     Macmi Han's  Mag.  March  1892. 

72.  Scudamore.     Egypt   and  the    late    Khedive.     Blackwood's, 

Feb.  1892. 

73.  Gilder.     Paderewski.     Century,  March  1892. 

74.  Hubbard.     The  Tax  on  Barbarism.     N.  E.  and  Yale  Rev. 

March  1892. 

75.  Buel.    The  Louisiana  Lottery.     Century,  Feb.  1892. 

76.  White.     Suppression  of  Lotteries.     Forum,  Feb.  1892. 

77.  The  Short  Story.     Atlan.  Feb.  1892. 

78.  Edmunds.     Perils  of  our  National  Elections.     Forum,  Feb. 

1892. 

79.  Tolman.     Studies  in  Macbeth.     Atlan.  Feb.  1892. 

80.  Dodge.     Progress  in  Agriculture.     Amer.  Agric.  Jan.  1892. 

81.  Gale.     The  Marble  Faun  Interpreted.     N.  E.  and  Yale  Rev. 

Jan.  1892. 

82.  Boyesen.     W.   D.   Howells  and  his   Work.     Cosmop.   Feb. 

1892. 

83.  Arnold.     Love  and  Marriage  in  Japan.    Cosmop.  Feb.  1892. 

84.  Atkinson  and  Cabot.     Personal  Liberty.     Pop.  Science  Mo. 

Feb.  1892. 

85.  Adams.     Rise  and  Fall  of  Fonseca.     Cosmop.  Feb.  1892. 

86.  Goodwin.     English  and  American  Schoolboys.     School  and 

College,  Feb.  1892. 

87.  Macgregor.     Socialism.     Bib.  Sac.  Jan.  1892. 

88.  Walker.     How  a  Bill  presented  in  Congress  becomes  a  Law. 

Chautauquan,  Feb.  1892. 

89.  Davies.     Compulsory    Education.     Westminster    Rev.   Feb. 

1892. 

90.  Earle.     The  Study  of  English.     Forum,  March  1892. 

91.  Cox.   Men  of  '61.     Why  they  fought.     Atlan.  March  1892. 

92.  Lathrop.  John  Boyle  O'Reilly.     Century,  Dec.  1891. 

93.  Lowell.     Shakespeare's  Richard  III.     Atlan.  Dec.  1891. 

94.  Sears.     Football  —  Sports  and  Training.    No.  Am.  Rev.  Dec. 

1891. 

95.  James.    James  Russell  Lowell.     Atlan.  Jan.  1892. 

96.  Powell.     A  World-wide  Republic.     Arena,  Jan.  1892. 

97.  Stedman.    Juliet's  Runaway.     Poet  Lore,  Jan.  1892. 

98.  Mills.     General    Booth's  Experiment.     Unitar.   Rev.    Dec. 

1891. 


390  SPECIAL   EXERCISES  IN 

99.   Walton.     A  Brief  for  Ophelia.     Poet  Lore,  Nov.  1891. 

100.  Handy.     Negro  Superstitions.     Lippincott,  Dec.  1891. 

101.  Freeman.     Dangers  to  the  Peace  of  Europe.     Forum,  Nov. 

1891. 

102.  Benton.     Lowell's  Americanism.     Century,  Nov.  1891. 

103.  Potter.     The  Profit  of  Good  Country  Roads.     Forum,  Nov. 

1891. 

104.  Atkinson.     Free  Coinage  of  Silver.     Forum,  Oct.  1891. 

105.  Farrar.     An    English    Estimate   of    Lowell.     Forum,  Oct. 

1891. 

106.  Gosse.     Rudyard  Kipling.     Century,  Oct.  1891. 

107.  Repplier.     The  Oppression  of  Notes.     Atlau.  Aug.  1891. 

108.  Clark.     Public  Life.     Forum,  July  1891. 

109.  McCracken.      Six  Centuries  of    Self-Government.      Atlan. 

Aug.  1891. 

110.  Walker.    Immigration  and  Degradation.    Forum,  Aug.  1891. 

111.  Thatcher.     The  Failure  of  the  Jury  System.     No.  Am.  Rev. 

Aug.  1891. 

112.  Dilke.     Trades   Unions  for   Women.    No.   Am.  Rev.  Aug. 

1891. 

113.  Hurl  but.     Reciprocity  and  Canada.      No.  Am.   Rev.   Oct. 

1891. 

114.  Shaler.     Nature  of  the  Negro.     Arena,  Dec.  1891. 

115.  Mathews.  The  Whole  Duty  of  Critics.    New  Rev.  Nov.  1890. 

116.  Martin.     The  Chinese  as  They  see  Us.    Forum,  Feb.  1891. 

117.  Gosse.     Influence  of  Democracy  on   Literature.    Con  temp. 

Rev.  Apr.  1891. 

118.  Osgood.     Political  Ideas  of  the  Puritans.     Pol.  Science  Quart. 

March  1891. 

119.  Rainsford.    What  can  We  Do  for  the   Poor?  Forum,  Apr. 

1891. 

120.  McCracken.     Arnold  Winkelreid.     Atlan.  Apr.  1891. 

121.  Rice.     The  Example  of  a  Great  Life.    No.  Am.  Rev.  Apr. 

1891. 

122.  Morris.     New  Africa.     Lippincott,  Apr.  1891. 

123.  Nelson.      Town  and  Village   Government.      Harper,  June 

1891. 

124.  Richardson.     The    College   Settlement     Lippincott,  June 

1891. 


RHETORICAL  ANALYSIS.  391 

125.  Walker.     Colored  Race  in  the  United  States.     Forum,  July 

1891. 

126.  Buckley.     Christianity  and  Socialism.     Harper,  July  1891. 

127.  Dewey.     Poetry  and  Philosophy.     Andover  Rev.  Aug.  1891. 

128.  Caylor.     Theory  and  Introduction  of  Curve  Pitching.     Out- 

ing, Aug.  1891. 

129.  Blum.     The  Russia  of  To-day.     Arena,  May  1891. 

130.  Rouss.     Cash  vs.  Credit.     Belford's  Mag.  March  1891. 

131.  Spreckels.     The  Future  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.     No.  Am. 

Rev.  March  1891. 

132.  Salter.     The  Problem  of  the  Unemployed.     New  Eng.  Mag. 

March  1891. 

133.  Stark.     Silver  Coinage.     Arena,  Jan.  1891. 

134.  Shearman.     The  Coming  Billionaire.     Forum,  Jan.  1891. 

135.  Shaler.     Individualism  in  Education.     Atlan.  Jan.  1891. 

136.  Allen.     The   Case  of   Roger  Williams.     Unitar.  Rev.  Jan. 

1891. 

137.  McCracken.    Legend  of  William  Tell.    Atlan.  Nov.  1890. 

138.  Gladden.     The  Embattled  Farmers.     Forum,  Nov.  1890. 

139.  Kitson.    The  Logic  of  Free  Trade  and  Protection.     Pop. 

Science  Mo.  Nov.  1890. 

140.  Tilly.     The  Shibboleth   of  Public  Opinion.     Forum,  Nov. 

1890. 

141.  Stoddard.     Thomas  Buchanan  Read.    Lippincott,  Feb.  1891. 

142.  Bridges.     Coeducation  in  Swiss  Universities.     Pop.  Science 

Mo.  Feb.  1891. 

143.  Roosevelt.    An  Object  Lesson  in  Civil  Service  Reform.    Atlan. 

Feb.  1891. 

144.  Miles.     Progress  in  Agricultural  Science.     Pop.  Science  Mo. 

Feb.  1891. 

145.  Hyatt.     Public  Parks.     Atlan.  Feb.  1891. 

146.  Woods.     University  Extension  in  England.     Andover  Rev. 

March  1891. 

147.  Coxe.     Do  we  Hate  England?    Forum,  March  1891. 

148.  Danziger.      Labor   Unions   and   Strikes   in    Ancient   Rome. 

Cosmop.  March  1891. 

149.  Graham.     Supposed  Tendencies  to  Socialism.     Pop.  Science 

Mo.  March  1891. 

150.  Child.     The  Argentine  Capital.     Harper,  March  1891, 


392       EXERCISES  IN  RHETORICAL   ANALYSIS. 

151.   Roosevelt.     Fellow-feeling  as  a  Political  Factor.     Century, 

59 : 466. 
Macy.     Tolstoi's  Moral  Theory  of  Art.     Century,  60  : 298. 

153.  Strong.     In  Samoa  with  Stevenson.     Century,  63  : 657. 

154.  Burroughs.     Literary  Values.     Century,  63 :  853. 

155.  Gosse.     Mr.  Swinburne.     Century,  64  : 101. 

156.  Gilder.     A  Romance  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.    Century, 

70:918. 

157.  Gosse.     The  Patron  in   the  Eighteenth  Century.     Harper, 

107:3. 

158.  Bacon.    Industrial  Education  in  the  South.     Harper,  107: 

659. 

159.  Woodberry.    The  South  in  American  Letters.     Harper,  107  : 

735. 

160.  Matthews.     An  Apology  for  Technic.     No.  Am.  180 : 868. 

161.  Bonsai.     A  Latin- American  Type.     No.  Am.  176 : 747. 

162.  Mabie.     The  Work  of  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward.    No.  Am.  176  : 

481. 

163.  Beers.     The  English  Drama  of  To-day.    No.  Am.  180  :  746. 

164.  James.     Boston.     No.  Am.  182  :  333. 

165.  Lee,    Tolstoy  as  a  Prophet.     No.  Am.  182  :  524. 

166.  Stedman.     Poe,  Cooper,  and  the  Hall  of  Fame.     No.   Am. 

135:801. 

167.  Reinsch.     Governing  the  Orient  on  Western  Principles.    Fo- 

rum, 31 : 387. 

168.  Reid.     Li  Hung  Chang.    A  Character  Sketch.     Forum,  32 : 

169.  Windrailler.     Protection  against  Fires  and  Faulty  Construc- 

tion.    Forum,  36 : 273. 

170.  Rice.   An  Effort  to  Suppress  Noise.     Forum,  37  : 352. 

171.  Ellis.     The  Home  of  the  Holy  Grail.     Harper,  114:747. 

172.  Martin.     The  Habits  of  the  Sea.     Harper,  113  : 205. 

173.  Brownell.    John  Ruskin.     Scribner,  27 :  502. 

174.  Harper.     Balzac.     Scribner,  27  : 617. 

175.  Howells.     A  Personal  Retrospect  of  James  Russell  Lowell. 

Scribner,  28 : 363. 

176.  Brownell.     George  Eliot.     Scribner,  28  :  711. 

177.  Matthews.     The  English  Language  in  America.     Scribner, 

30 : 105. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING.  393 

178.  Brownell.     Matthew  Arnold.     Scribner,  30 : 105. 

179.  Matthews.     The  Literary  Merit  of  our   Latter-day   Drama. 

Scribner,  34 :  607. 

180.  Mott.     Three  Days  on  the  Volga.     Scribner,  37  :  297. 

Supplementary  Reading. 

The  follow  ing  books  and  articles  are  suggested  for  reading 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  text :  — 

i.  Theory  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition, 
a.  General. 

Lewes.     Principles  of  Success  in  Literature. 

Palmer.     Self-Cultivation  in  English. 

Wendell.     English  Composition. 

Higginson.     Hints  on  Writing  and  Speech-making. 

Bates.     Talks  on  Writing  English.     (1st  and  2d  Series.) 

M into.     Plain  Principles  of  Prose  Composition. 

Masson.     Genius  and  Discipline.     Macmillan's  Magazine,  7:81. 

Wilson.     On  an  A  uthor's  Choice  of  Company.     Century,  51 : 775. 

Bainton.     Art  of  Authorship. 

Bain.     Original  Composition.     In  Practical  Essays,  p.  253. 

Bain.    James  Mill.     A  Biography. 

Hill.     Our  English. 

Spencer.     Philosophy  of  Style. 

Stevenson.     On  Style.     Contemporary  Magazine,  47  :  458. 

Stevenson.     A  College  Magazine. 

Pater.     Style.     In  Appreciations. 

De  Quincey.     Essay  on  Style. 

Harrison.     On  Style  in  English  Prose.     19th  Century,  June,  1898. 

b.  Description. 

Alexander  and  Libby.     Composition  from  Models,  pp.  119-294. 
Bain.     English  Composition  and  Rhetoric  (2- vol.  edition),  Vol.  1, 

pp.  263-310. 

Baldwin.     Specimens  of  Prose  Description. 
Baldwin.     College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  Chap.  6. 


394  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 

Bates.     Talks  on  Writing  English,  Chaps.  14,  15. 

Cairns.     The  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  113-169. 

Day.     Art  of  Discourse,  pp.  78-82. 

Fletcher  and  Carpenter.     Theme-  Writing,  pp.  33-63. 

Gardiner.     The  Forms  of  Prose  Literature,  pp.  154-170. 

Genung.     Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis,  pp.  36-47,  56-63,  156- 

184. 

Genung.     Outlines  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  250-256. 
Genung.     The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  477-510. 
Hale.     Constructive  Rhetoric,  pp.  35-67. 
Hart.     Handltook  of  English  Composition,  Pt.  1,  Chap.  6. 
Hill,  A.  S.    Principles  of  Rhetoric  (revised  edition),  pp.  249-280. 
Hill,  D.  J.     Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  75-85. 
Lewis.     First  Book  in  Writing  English,  pp.  275-278. 
McElroy.     Structure  of  English  Prose,  pp.  299-306. 
Mead.     Elementary  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  143-156. 
Minto.     Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature,  pp.  26,  72,  115,  169. 
Newcomer.     English  Composition,  pp.  47-108. 
Tompkins.     Science  of  Discourse  (revised  edition),  pp.  61-92. 

Some  entertaining  passages  on  learning  to  write  description 
will  be  found  in  Robert  Louis  Stevenson's  A  College  Magazine,  in 
Memories  and  Portraits. 

For  discussions  of  certain  problems  of  description,  the  student 
may  be  referred  to  Lessing's  Laokoon,  to  E.  L.  Walter's  paper 
entitled  Lessing  on  the  Boundaries  of  Poetry  and  Painting,  and  to 
Royce's  article  Some  Recent  Studies  on  Ideas  of  Motion,  in  Science 
for  November  30,  1883. 

c.  Narration. 

Alexander  and  Libby.     Composition  from  Models,  pp.  15-118. 
Bain.     English  Composition  and  Rhetoric  (2- vol.  edition),  pp.  46-47, 

50-51. 

Baldwin.     College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  Chap.  5. 
Bates.     Talks  on  Writing  English,  pp.  210-257. 
Brewster.     Studies  in  Structure  and  Style,  pp.  1-48. 
Brewster.     Specimens  of  Narration  (Introduction). 
Cairns.     The  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  58-112. 
Day.     -4ft  of  Discourse,  pp.  70-77. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING.  395 

Fletcher  and  Carpenter.     Theme- Writing,  pp.  64-86. 

Gardiner.     The  Forms  of  Prose  Literature,  pp.  120-153. 

Genung.     Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis,  pp.  187-224. 

Genung.     Outlines  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  257-262. 

Genung.     The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  511-553. 

Hale.     Constructive   Rhetoric,  pp.  17-34. 

Hart.     Handbook  of  English  Composition,  Pt.  1,  Chap.  5. 

Hill,  A.  S.     Principles  of  Rhetoric  (revised  edition),  pp.  281-299. 

Hill,  D.  J.     Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  86-94. 

McElroy.     Structure  of  English  Prose,  pp.  296-299. 

Matthews.     The  Philosophy  of  the  Short  Story.     (In  Pen  and  Ink.) 

Mead.     Elementary  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  156-162. 

Minto.     Manual  of  English  Prose,  pp.  27,  74,  118,  173. 

Newcomer.     English  Composition,  pp.  15-46. 

Tompkins.     Science  of  Discourse,  pp.  79-106. 

The   following   references  bear  more  especially  on  the 
technique  of  narrative :  — 

Aristotle.     Poetics.     (Wharton's  or  Butcher's  translation.) 

Barrett.     Short  Story  Writing. 

Besant.     Art  of  Fiction. 

George  Eliot.     Story  Telling.     (In  Leaves  from  a  Note-Book.) 

Freytag.     Technique  of  the  Drama,  Chaps.  1-5. 

Hennequin.     The  Art  of  Play-writing,  pp.  33-143. 

James.     Art  of  Fiction.    Longman's  Magazine,  4:502. 

Perry.     A  Study  of  Prose  Fiction. 

Stevenson.     A    Gossip  on  Romance,  and  A  Humble  Remonstrance. 

(In  Memories  and  Portraits.) 
Woodbridge.     The  Drama  :  Its  Law  and  its  Technique. 

d.   Exposition. 

Alexander  and  Libby.     Composition  from  Models,  Part  III,  pp.  295- 

458. 
Bain.     English    Composition  and  Rhetoric  (1-vol.  edition),  pp.  185- 

211. 

Baldwin.  College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  Chap.  2. 
Bates.  Talks  on  Writing  English,  pp.  128-151. 
Cairns.  The  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  170-226. 


396  SUPPLEMENTARY  BEADING. 

Fletcher  and  Carpenter.  Theme-  Writing,  pp.  92-109. 
Gardiner.  The  Form*  of  Prose  Literature,  pp.  25-60. 
Genung.  Handbook  of  Rhetorical  Analysis,  pp.  8-16,  18-23,  67-80, 

141-146,  224-254. 

Genung.     Outlines  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  263-267. 
Genung.     The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  554-596. 
Hale.     Constructive  Rhetoric,  pp.  68-98. 
Hart.     Handbook  of  English  Composition,  pp.  82-192. 
Hill,  A.  S.     Principles  of  Rhetoric  (revised  edition),  pp.  320-326. 
Hill,  D.  J.     Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  95-106. 
Lament.     Specimens  of  Exposition. 

Lewis.      Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  127-232. 
McElroy.     Structure  of  English  Prose,  pp.  306-309. 
Mead.     Practical  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  214-227. 
Minto.     Manual  of  English  Prose,  p.  28. 
Newcomer.     Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  11, 12. 
Newcomer.     English  Composition,  pp.  119-136. 
Tompkins.     Science  of  Discourse,  pp.  107-145. 

e.  Argumentation. 

Bain.     English  Composition  and  Rhetoric  (1-vol.  edition),  pp.  205- 

208,210,211,228-243. 
Baker.     Principles  of  Argumentation. 
Baker.     Specimens  of  A  rgumentation. 
Baldwin.     College  Manual  of  Rhetoric,  Chap.  3. 
Bates.     Talks  on  Writing  English,  pp.  152-180. 
Bradley.      Orations  and  Arguments. 
Brooking  and  Ringwalt.    Briefs  for  Debate. 
Cairns.     The  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  227-292. 
Fletcher  and  Carpenter.     Theme- Writing,  pp.  110-133. 
Gardiner.     The  Forms  of  Prose  Literature,  pp.  61-87. 
Genung.     Outlines  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  268-276. 
Genung.     The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  597-662. 
Hale.     Constructive  Rhetoric,  pp.  321-342. 
Hart.     Handbook  of  English  Composition,  §§  62-75. 
Hill,  A.  S.     Principles  of  Rhetoric  (revised  edition),  pp.  327-400. 
Hill,  D.  J.     Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  107-139. 
Lewis.      Specimens  of  the  Forms  of  Discourse,  pp.  233-334. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING.  397 

McElroy.     Structure  of  English  Prose,  309-327. 
Mead.      Practical  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  pp.  227-246. 
Newcomer.     Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  83-86. 
Newcomer.     English  Composition,  pp.  137-169. 
Tompkins.     Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  146-207. 

On  the  logical  basis  of  argumentation,  the  most  helpful  books 
are  perhaps  Alfred  Sidgwick's  Process  of  Argument,  and  Alfred 
Binet's  Psychology  of  Reasoning. 

2.   General  Reference  List. 

The  student  should  learn  how  to  consult  and  use  the 
following  in  investigating  a  subject :  — 

a.  Kroeger's  Guide  to  the  Study  and   Use  of  Reference  Books. 
This  is  an  exhaustive  list  of  the  most  important  books  of  refer- 
ence, arranged  under  suitable  heads  and  carefully  discriminated 
and  described.     It  is  published  by  the  American  Library  Associa- 
tion, Boston. 

b.  Card  Catalogues.    Almost  every  library  is  now  provided  with 
a  card  catalogue  of  subjects,  titles,  and  authors,  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical order,  in  one  list. 

c.  Poole's  Index  of  M agazine  Literature.     This  consists  of  refer- 
ences to  magazine  articles  on  all  subjects,  arranged  alphabetically. 
It  is  supplemented  by  yearly  issues,  called  the  Annual  Library  In- 
dex, and  a  new  volume  is  published  at  intervals  of  five  years.     The 
Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  (begun  in  1901)  is  of  the 
same  general  character,  but  appears  monthly. 

d.  A.  L.  A.  Index  to  General  Literature.     Similar  to  Poole's  In- 
dex, except  that  the  references  are  to  essays  and  chapters  in  books. 
Continued  since  1900  in  the  Annual  Library  Index. 

e.  Encyclopaedias,  notably  the  Britannica,  usually  give  at  the 
close  of  each  important  article  a  list  of  authorities  that  may  be 
consulted  in  further  investigation  of  the  subject.     Other  ency- 
clopaedias worthy  to  be  mentioned,  are    Chambers',  The  New  In- 
ternational (supplemented   by  a  Year  Book),   The  Encyclopaedia 
Americana,  and  Nelson's  (a  loose-leaf  cyclopaedia  revised  at  fre- 
quent intervals).     Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia  (not  published 


398  SUPPLEMENTARY  BEADING. 

since  1902)  is  valuable  for  recent  history  and  accounts  of  progress 
in  science. 

/.  Of  biographical  dictionaries,  the  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant :  Lippincott's  Biographical  Dictionary ;  Century  Cyclopaedia 
of  Names  (contains  also  geographical  and  other  names) ;  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography  (British  notables  only)  ;  Who's  Who 
(British);  Who's  Who  in  America:  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Biography  ;  National  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Biography. 

g.  Dictionaries  of  English  and  American  Literature  :  Allibone's 
Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and  British  and  American  Authors; 
W.  D.  Adams's  Dictionary  of  English  Literature  ;  Duyckinck's  Cy- 
clopaedia of  American  Literature.  To  these  may  be  added  two  use- 
ful compilations :  Ryland's  Chronological  Outlines  of  English  Litera- 
ture, and  Whitcomb's  Chronological  Outlines  of  American  Literature. 

h.  C.  K.  Adams's  Manual  of  Historical  Literature  is  especially 
valuable  in  estimating  the  weight  of  a  historian's  statements. 
More  special  in  character  is  Channing  and  Hart's  Guide  to  the 
Study  of  American  History.  For  the  facts  of  American  history, 
Harper's  Encyclopedia  of  United  States  History  or  Jameson's  Dic- 
tionary of  United  States  History  may  be  consulted. 

i.  On  economic  and  social  questions  the  following  are  useful : 
Lalor's  Cyclopedia  of  Political  Science,  Political  Economy,  and  of 
the  Political  History  of  the  United  States ;  Bowkerand  Iles's  Readers' 
Guide  in  Economic,  Social,  and  Political  Science  ;  Bliss  and  Blinder's 
New  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform  ;  Palgrave's  Dictionary  of  Po- 
litical Economy. 

j.  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians,  Sturgis's  Diction- 
ary of  Architecture,  and  Bryan's  Dictionary  of  Painters  are  author- 
ities in  their  respective  fields. 

k.  Statistics,  current  facts,  etc.  The  Statistical  Abstract  of  the 
United  States,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Statistics,  and  the 
Abstract  of  the  last  Census,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
are  among  the  most  useful  of  government  documents.  For  gen- 
eral reference  the  following  are  especially  valuable  :  The  Tribune 
Almanac;  The  World  Almanac ;  Whitaker's  A Imanack ;  The  Annual 
Register;  Statesman's  Year  Book. 

I.  Notes  and  Queries,  a  British  periodical,  is  a  mine  of  informa- 
tion upon  every  subject,  but  especially  upon  odd,  out-of-the-way 


SUPPLEMENTARY  BEADING.  399 

subjects.  It  is  invaluable  for  tracing  the  source  of  quotations, 
proverbs,  usages,  customs,  historical  allusions,  and  the  like.  A 
special  index  is  published  for  each  series. 

m.   Bartlett's  Familiar  Quotations  is  a  standard  work  in  its  field. 

n.  Brewer's  Reader's  Handbook  and  his  Dictionary  of  Phrase  and 
Fable  are  helpful  in  tracing  literary  allusions. 

o.  Baker's  Descriptive  Guide  to  the  Best  Fiction  contains  classified 
lists  of  novels  with  descriptions  and  criticisms.  A  briefer  list  will 
be  found  in  the  H.  W.  Wilson  Fiction  Catalog. 

p.  The  following  books  are  of  special  value  in  preparation  for 
debates:  Brooking  and  Ringwalt's  Briefs  for  Debate;  Ringwalt's 
Briefs  on  Public  Questions;  Matson's  References  for  Literary  Workers. 

q.  Among  the  most  useful  guides  to  engineering  literature  are 
the  following  :  The  Engineering  Index  A  rmua/,  collected  every  five 
years  into  a  volume  entitled  The  Engineering  Index;  Galloupe's 
Index  to  Engineering  Periodicals;  (1883-1892)  ;  International  Cata- 
logue of  Scientific  Literature;  American  Society  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers, General  Index  of  Transactions  ;  Technical  Press  Index. 


APPENDIX   C. 

A  CLASSIFIED  LIST   OF  ESSAY  SUBJECTS. 

English  Language  and  Literature. 

1.  Dickens  as  a  reformer. 

2.  What  part  of  his  course  should  a  student  devote  to  English  ? 

3.  Arguments  for  spelling  reform. 

4.  Compare  Tennyson's  two  poems  on  Locksley  Hall. 

5.  A  history  of  the  office  of  Poet  Laureate. 

6.  Should  the  office  of  Poet  Laureate  be  abolished? 

7.  The  problems  in  The  Marble  Faun. 

8.  The  late  Cardinal  Newman  as  a  literary  man. 

9.  Lowell's  essay  on  Democracy. 

10.  What  is  the  problem  discussed  in  Elsie  Venner  f 

11.  Dr.  Johnson's  strength  and  weakness  as  a  prose  writer. 

12.  What  are  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  Bryant's  poetry  ? 

13.  Justify  Whittier's  title  "The  Poet  of  Freedom." 

14.  Dr.  Holmes's  Story  of  Iris —  its  meaning. 

15.  Richard  III.  in  Shakespeare  and  in  history. 

16.  Shy  lock  vs.  Antonio  —  a  plea  for  Shy  lock. 

17.  Shelley's  place  in  English  Poetry. 

18.  Goldsmith's  Parson  (Deserted  Village)  compared  with  Chau- 

cer's. 

19.  Problems  in  Hawthorne's  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 

20.  The  Book  of  Job  treated  as  a  tragedy. 

21. .  Emerson's  Essay  on  Manners —  is  the  theory  adequate? 

22.  Were  Matthew  Arnold's  criticisms  on  America  just? 

23.  Is  Taine's  estimate  of  the  influence  of  the  Puritans  on  litera- 

ture correct  ? 

24.  Literary  characteristics  of  Dr.  Watts's  Hymns. 

25.  Compare  Emerson's  idea  of  Napoleon  with  Taine's. 

26.  The  effect  of  Methodism  on  eighteenth  century  literature. 

27.  Account  for  the  present  neglect  of  Paradise  Lost  by  readers. 

400 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE.       401 

28.  Dr.  Johnson's  estimate  of  Dryden. 

29.  Influence  of  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers. 

30.  A  study  of  words  ending  in  -able  or  -ible. 

31.  Compare  Shakespeare's  Caesar  with  the  Caesar  of  history. 

32.  What  is  the  meaning  of  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner  f 

33.  A  comparison  of  Tennyson's  Ulysses  and  Guinevere. 

34.  A  comparison  of  Tennyson's  Ulysses  and  Northern  Farmer. 

35.  Is  the  English  language  likely  to  become  universal  ? 

36.  The  Bacon-Shakespeare  controversy. 

37.  Richelieu  in  Bulwer  and  in  history. 

38.  Fashions  in  literature. 

39.  The  Bible  in  Tennyson. 

40.  Pathos  in  Dickens. 

41.  Tennyson's  earlier  and  later  poetry  compared. 

42.  Spelling  reform. 

43.  Some  overworked  words. 

44.  Rhythm  in  prose. 

45.  The  use  of  slang. 

46.  Cant  English  expressions. 

47.  Influence  of  the  so-called  religious  novel. 

48.  The  Brook  Farm  experiment. 

49.  Pronunciation  of  English  words. 

50.  What  classes  speak  the  best  English? 

51.  A  study  of  the  word  reliable. 

52.  Defective  rhymes  in  English  verse. 

53.  Some  Americanisms  examined. 

54.  Crime  in  standard  fiction. 

55.  Henrik  Ibsen's  influence  in  America. 

56.  Voltaire  on  Shakespeare. 

57.  The  tragedy  of  Lear. 

58.  Dickens  —  the  people's  novelist. 

59.  The  work  of  Amelia  B.  Edwards. 

60.  The  Alhambra. 

61.  Famous  literary  clubs  at  the  English  universities. 

62.  Early  forms  of  the  drama  in  England. 

63.  The  England  of  Chaucer. 

64.  Influence  of  the  Puritans  on  literature. 

65.  Milton's  religious  views. 

66.  Character  of  Thackeray's  Becky  Sharp. 


402  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

67.  Bryant's  and  Walt  Whitman's  Americanism. 

68.  Irving  —  a  typical  literary  man. 

69.  Historical  basis  of  Shakespeare's  Macbeth. 

70.  Scott's  reason  for  ceasing  to  write  poetry. 

71.  Causes  of  dramatic  decline  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

72.  Influence  of  patrons  on  literature. 

73.  Coffee-house  criticisms  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

74.  Theocritus  in  Tennyson. 

75.  Seventeenth  century  satire. 

76.  Walt  Whitman's  place  in  American  poetry. 

77.  American  literature  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

78.  Tennyson  as  a  dramatist. 

79.  Lanier's  theory  of  English  verse. 

80.  The  lesson  of  Browning's  Grammarian's  Funeral. 

81.  Carlyle's  estimate  of  Coleridge. 

82.  Is  the  highest  type  of  poetry  religious? 

83.  Dramas  to  be  read  and  dramas  to  be  acted. 

84.  Distinguishing  features  of  an  epic. 

85.  Distinguishing  features  of  a  drama. 

86.  Distinguishing  features  of  a  lyric. 

87.  Novel  and  romance  compared. 

88.  Idealism  and  realism  compared. 

89.  Classicism  and  romanticism. 

90.  The  three  unities. 

91.  Burke's  views  on  the  American  and  French  revolutions  con- 

trasted. 

92.  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetic  diction. 

93.  The  true  function  of  criticism. 

94.  What  principles  of  literary  criticism  have  we  ? 

95.  Was  Pope  a  poet  in  the  true  sense  ? 

96.  Is  Stedman's  definition  of  poetry  adequate? 

97.  A  study  of  prefaces  and  their  peculiarities. 

98.  Shakespeare's  fools. 

99.  Ruskin's  revision  of  Modern  Painters  —  a  study  in  rhetoric. 

100.  Should  a  novel  teach  something  ? 

101.  Does  novel  reading  lead  to  inaction  and  will-paralysis? 

102.  Discuss  Poe's  arguments  for  the  short  story. 

103.  Poe  and  Longfellow. 

104.  How  Poe  hoaxed  the  American  people. 


MODERN  LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURES.        403 

105.  Poe's  account  of  the  composition  of  The  Raven. 

106.  Literary  horrors. 

107.  Characteristics  of  current  magazine  poetry. 

108.  An  examination  of  Stedman's  Ariel. 

109.  The  story  of  Chatterton. 

110.  Characteristics  of  Maurice  Thompson's  poetry. 

111.  Edith  Thomas  as  a  poetess. 

112.  The  dialect  poem  and  its  rank. 

113.  James  Whitcomb  Riley. 

114.  Military  men  as  writers. 

115.  Mark  Twain  as  a  representative  humorist. 

116.  Philip  Freneau  —  the  poet  of  the  Revolution. 

117.  Celebrated  literary  friendships. 

118.  The  quarrels  of  writers. 

119.  Beginnings  of  English  fiction. 

120.  English  writers  as  reformers. 

121.  Charles  Brockden  Brown  as  a  novelist. 

122.  Differences  between  written  and  spoken  English. 

123.  Causes  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 

124.  Influence  of  the  Revival  of  Learning. 

125.  Was  Hamlet  really  mad  ? 

126.  Has  fiction  been  more  of  a  good  than  an  evil? 

127.  Cooper's  rank  as  a  novelist. 

128.  Lowell  and  Holmes  compared  as  humorists. 

129.  Shakespeare's  borrowings. 

130.  Classic  forms  in  modern  literature. 

131.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  —  the  man  as  we  know  him  through 

his  writings. 

Modern  Languages  and  Literatures. 

1.  An  outline  of  Hermann  and  Dorothea. 

2.  The  legend  of  William  Tell. 

3.  A  sketch  of  one  of  Paul  Heyse's  novels. 

4.  The  Troubadours  and  Minnesingers. 

5.  Theories  of  the  Romantic  School  in  France. 

6.  What  has  been  Voltaire's  influence? 

7.  Schiller's  Maria  Stuart  compared  with  the   Mary   Stuart  of 

history. 


404  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

8.  Influence  of  the  Reformation  on  German  literature. 

9.  The  French  Academy. 

10.  Influence  of  literature  in  bringing  about  the  unification   of 

Germany. 

11.  Influence  of  the  Revolution  on  French  literature. 

12.  Influence  of  German  literature  upon  English  literature  since 

Goethe's  time. 

13.  French  theories  of  realism. 

14.  The  influence  of  Heinrich  Heine. 

15.  The  morality  of  Moliere's  plays. 

16.  Is  Rousseau  the  father  of  modern  socialism? 

17.  The  meeting  of  the  two  queens  in  Maria  Stuart. 

18.  Goethe's  indifference  to  German  liberation  —  how  explained? 

19.  The  growth  of  the  Faust  legend. 

20.  Schiller  as  a  critic. 

21.  Marlowe's   Dr.   Faustus    and    Goethe'a    Faust   compared  as 

characters. 

22.  Recent  movements  in  German  literature. 

23.  French  and  German  newspapers. 

24.  German  folk-poetry. 

The  Classics. 

1.  The  necessity  of  a  classical  education. 

2.  Effect  of  the  elective  system  upon  classical  study. 

3.  The  arts  of  the  Athenians.     (Vide  Plutarch's  Pericles.) 

4.  Plutarch's  estimate  of  Pericles  compared  with  that  of  Thu- 

cydides. 

5.  Theories  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

6.  Mommsen's  characterization  of  Julius  Caesar. 

7.  Contrast  the  historians  Thucydides  and  Herodotus. 

8.  The  defence  of  Socrates  before  his  judges. 

9.  The  value  of  the  Socratic  method. 

10.  Discuss  Horace's  view  of  life. 

11.  Effect  of  the  satirists  upon  Roman  morals. 

12.  Describe  a  Roman  theatre. 

13.  Can  Cicero  be  considered  a  Stoic  ? 

14.  Reasons  for  the  tardy  development  of  Attic  oratory. 

15.  The  best  method  of  pronouncing  Latin. 


HISTORY  AND  ECONOMICS.  405 

16.  Value  and  defects  of  Ostracism. 

17.  Describe  a  Greek  theatre. 

18.  Ideas  of  the  Greeks  on  education. 

19.  Rome  as  a  civilize  r  of  her  conquerors. 

20.  Slavery  as  a  Roman  institution. 

21.  The  education  of  a  Greek  boy. 

22.  The  education  of  a  Roman  boy. 

23.  Influence  of  conquest  on  Roman  literature. 

24.  The  collegia  poetarwn. 

25.  Influence  of  Roman  philosophy  on  our  views  of  life. 

26.  Influence  of  Cicero  on  modern  morals. 

27.  Schliemann's  work. 

28.  Is  the  story  of  the  Trojan  War  based  on  fact? 

29.  Woman  in  Greece  and  in  Rome. 

30.  The  moral  attitude  of  Achilles. 

31.  Greek  ideas  of  a  future  life. 

32.  A  Roman  banquet  described. 

33.  Greek  use  of  the  three  unities. 

34.  Compare  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  family. 

35.  Results  of  the  battle  of  Marathon. 

36.  Contribution  of  Greece  to  civilization. 

37.  Greek  and  Roman  influence  compared. 

38.  Influence  of  the  classics  on  the  English  language. 

39.  The  Roman  element  in  civilization. 

40.  Caesar  as  a  statesman. 

41.  Christianity  in  the  Roman  Empire. 

42.  The  first  Christian  emperor  of  Rome. 

43.  What  did  the  Stoics  believe  ? 

44.  What  did  the  Epicureans  believe  ? 

45.  The  .Kuril  1  as  a  religious  poem. 

46.  Virgil  as  a  poet  of  nature. 

History,  Economics,  and  Politics. 

1.  Results  of  the  Pan -American  Congress. 

2.  The  Federal  control  of  railways. 

3.  International  copyright. 

4.  Recent  political  experiments  in  Japan. 

5.  Pauperism. 


406  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

6.  The  Australian  ballot  system. 

7.  Waste  by  fire. 

8.  Municipal  misgovern  men t. 

9.  Reestablishment  of  guilds. 

10.  Uses  of  royalty  in  England. 

11.  The  anti-poverty  movement. 

12.  Ought  Nevada  to  have  been  made  a  state  ? 

13.  Influence  of  the  cabinet  on  congress. 

14.  Evils  attending  our  labor-saving  machinery. 

15.  Strikes—  how  far  beneficial? 

16.  Pardoning  power  of  state  governors. 

17.  The  original  package  decision. 

18.  Benefits  of  historical  study. 

19.  Advantages  of  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago. 

20.  Defects  of  the  present  electoral  system  in  the  United  States. 

21.  The  policy  of  the  present  emperor  of  Germany. 

22.  Powers  of  the  speaker  of  the  national  House  of  Representa- 

tives. 

23.  What  is  reciprocity  ? 

24.  The  judicial  work  of  John  Marshall. 

25.  How  does  public  opinion  rule  in  the  United  States  ? 

26.  Should  the  presidential  term  be  lengthened  ? 

27.  Should  secret  sessions  of  the  senate  be  abolished? 

28.  Hamilton  as  a  financier. 

29.  The  confederation  in  Australia. 

30.  Ought  the  governor  of  a  state  to  have  the  veto  power  ? 

31.  The  Know-Nothing  party. 

32.  How  far  may  our  government  wisely  go  in  restricting  immi- 

gration ? 

33.  Early  English  law  courts. 

34.  Effect  of  the  Crusades  on  England. 

35.  Origin  of  Parliament. 

36.  Effect  of  maritime  discoveries  on  England. 

37.  Is  Nationalism  practicable  ?     (Read  Looking  Backward.) 

38.  Napoleon  as  an  exile. 

39.  Committee  government  in  Congress. 

40.  Railway  pools. 

41.  Socialistic  tendencies  in  the  United  States. 

42.  Federal  supervision  of  elections. 


HISTORY  AND  ECONOMICS.  407 

43.  Alaska's  race  problem. 

44.  The  eight-hour  question. 

45.  Gladstone's  treatment  of  Gordon. 

46.  Fallacies  of  Henry  George. 

47.  A  southern  view  of  the  negro  problem. 

48.  Spread  of  Mormonism. 

49.  Tax  reform. 

50.  Prohibition  a  reducer  of  crime. 

51.  Should  fortunes  be  limited  by  law  ? 

52.  Work  of  the  Federal  Court  of  Claims. 

53.  Probability  of  the  abolition  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

54.  Effect  of  Bismarck's  retirement. 

55.  What  did  the  Salisbury  ministry  accomplish  ? 

56.  Pensions  in  the  United  States. 

57.  Increase  of  Federal  powers  in  the  United  States  since  1865. 

58.  Rise  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

59.  The  present  status  of  Home  Rule. 

60.  A  government  postal  telegraph. 

61.  The  fisheries  dispute. 

62.  Lynch  law  and  law  reform. 

63.  Municipal  elections  should  be  separated  from  general  elections. 

64.  An  American  apprentice  system. 

65.  The  saloon  in  politics. 

66.  The  work  of  John  Brown. 

67.  Our  methods  of  charity. 

68.  Reform  of  local  taxation. 

69.  Influence  of  the  independent  in  politics. 

70.  Evils  of  competition. 

71.  Is  prohibition  rightfully  a  national  issue? 

72.  Should  trusts  be  suppressed  ? 

73.  Reform  in  prison  management. 

74.  The  work  of  Howard  the  philanthropist. 

75.  The  work  of  Wilberforce. 

76.  Ex-presidents  —  United  States  Senators  for  life? 

77.  Judges  —  elected  or  appointed  ? 

78.  Cooperation  tried  by  experience. 

79.  Legal-tender  decisions. 

80.  The  ethics  of  boycotting. 

81.  Power  to  veto  items  in  appropriation  bills. 


408  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

82.  Causes  of  decline  in  American  shipbuilding. 

83.  Should  not  church  property  be  taxed  ? 

84.  Relation  of  railways  to  business. 

85.  Blacklisting  —  can  it  be  defended  ? 

86.  Irrigation  in  the  United  States. 

87.  Reasons  for  private  ownership  of  land. 

88.  Origin  and  brief  history  of  English  trades  unions. 

89.  The  story  of  Tammany  Hall. 

90.  Local  government  in  Japan. 

91.  Problems  involved  in  the  annexation  of  Canada. 

92.  Recent  history-making  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

93.  American  political  ideas  in  Japan. 

94.  The  Farmers'  Alliance  movement. 

95.  The  three  great  strikes  of  1892  —  their  lesson. 

96.  The  problem  of  the  unemployed. 

97.  The  progress  of  civil  service  reform. 

98.  What  does  state  socialism  include  ? 

99.  The  Newfoundland  fisheries  dispute. 

100.  How  woman  suffrage  has  worked  in  Wyoming. 

101.  The  United  States  Navy  —  its  present  condition. 

102.  Character  of  William  the  Conqueror. 

103.  Influence  and  work  of  Savonarola. 

104.  Sherman  as  a  financier. 

105.  Moral  aspects  of  tariff  legislation. 

106.  Our  Anglo-Saxon  ancestors. 

107.  The  story  of  Bulgaria. 

108.  Influence  of  protective  duties  on  wages  of  labor. 

109.  The  infant  industry  argument. 

110.  The  "  tariff  for  revenue  only"  idea. 

111.  Is  free  trade  possible  in  America  at  present? 

112.  Shall  the  production  of  raw  materials  or  of  finished  products 

be  encouraged  ? 

113.  Influence  of  profitrsharing  on  the  sharers. 

114.  Canals  vs.  railways. 

115.  What  was  the  argument  of  the  greenbacker  ? 

116.  Does  labor-saving  machinery  drive  men  out  of  work  ? 

117.  Labor  unions  as  social  centres. 

118.  The  history  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 

119.  The  interstate  commerce  law. 


HISTORY  AND  ECONOMICS.  409 

120.  What  determines  the  value  of  inconvertible  paper  currency  ? 

121.  Relation  of  money  supply  to  rate  of  interest. 

122.  Is  pooling  really  an  evil,  and  ought  it  to  be  forbidden  ? 

123.  Are  railway  wars  an  ultimate  benefit  to  the  people? 

124.  Has  there  been  an  excess  of  railroad  building  ? 

125.  Is  suffrage  correctly  regarded  as  a  natural  right  ? 

126.  Are  government  or  national  bank  notes  preferable  ? 

127.  Should  the  government  loan  money  to  farmers  ? 

128.  Does  Henry  George  state  Malthus's  doctrine  correctly  ? 

129.  What  part  should  government  have  in  charity  ? 

130.  Duties  of  cities  in  regard  to  sanitation. 

131.  The  Dawes  Indian  severally  bill  and  its  results. 

132.  The  industrial  status  of  woman. 

133.  The  "  free  western  land  "  alternative  for  discontented  labor. 

134.  Does  the  accumulation  of  wealth  increase  poverty  ? 

135.  Are  the  rich  growing  richer  and  the  poor  poorer  ? 

136.  Winsor's  estimate  of  Columbus. 

137.  Our  recent  behavior  towards  Chile  —  was  it  right? 

138.  The  Mexican  War  —  was  it  a  righteous  war  ? 

139.  Treatment  of  resident  Chinese  —  right  ? 

140.  Was  the  execution  of  the  Salem  witches  justifiable? 

141.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  —  is  it  still  effective? 

142.  Policies  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  in  suppressing  Puritans. 

143.  Guizot's  and  Balmes's  estimate   of  the   Reformation    com- 

pared. 

144.  A  description  of  the  machinery  of  government  in  Germany. 

145.  "  Initiative  "  and  "  referendum  "  in  Swiss  government. 

146.  The  communes  of  France  and  the  free  cities  of  Italy  com- 

pared. 

147.  Effect  of  the  French  Revolution  on  Switzerland. 

148.  Differences  between  the  Reformation  in  Germany  and  that 

in  England. 

149.  A  mediaeval  free  city. 

150.  The  Hanseatic  league  and  its  influence. 

151.  Are  the  laws  of  Russia  against  Jews  justifiable? 

152.  The  Michigan  plan  of  electing  Presidential  electors. 

153.  History  of  the  rise  of  nominating  conventions. 

154.  The  rise  of  the  Whig  party  and  its  make-up. 

155.  Motive  of  the  Crusades. 


410  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

156.  The  Children's  Crusade. 

157.  Results  of  the  Crusades. 

158.  The  good  and  evil  in  chivalry. 

159.  Monasticism  in  its  results  on  society. 

160.  Results  of  Feudalism  on  society. 

161.  Influence  of  early  Christianity. 
102.  Results  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

163.  Intellectual  results  of  Alexander's  conquests. 

164.  Constitution  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

165.  England's  colonial  policy. 

166.  Was  the  Reformation  mainly  a  religious  movement  ? 

167.  Execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

168.  Cromwell's  Protectorate  —  justifiable  ? 

169.  Execution  of  Charles  I.  —  justifiable  ? 

170.  Causes  of  the  panic  of  1893. 

171.  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution. 
\1'2.  Napoleon's  place  in  history. 

173.  Emerson's  estimate  of  Napoleon. 

174.  Puritans,  Quakers,  and  witches. 

175.  Banishment  of  Roger  Williams  — justifiable? 

176.  Beecher's  work  for  the  Union. 

177.  Jackson's  idea  of  the  President's  responsibility. 

178.  Jackson  and  Lincoln  —  points  of  similarity. 

179.  Was  John  Brown's  raid  justifiable? 

180.  Howard  as  a  philanthropist. 

181.  The  work  of  Bismarck. 

182.  The  work  of  Gladstone, 

183.  William  Lloyd  Garrison. 

184.  Ignatius  Loyola. 

185.  Permanent  Boards  of  Arbitration. 

186.  Dangers  of  unrestricted  immigration. 

187.  Did  Warren  Hastings  deserve  impeachment? 

188.  Did  Andrew  Johnson  deserve  impeachment  ? 

189.  What  is  known  about  Alfred  the  Great? 

190.  The  English  government  and  the  United  States  government 

compared. 

191.  Evils  of  party  government. 

192.  Is  the  existence  of  parties  necessary? 

193.  Should  party  lines  be  drawn  in  state  elections  ? 


HISTORY  AND  ECONOMICS.  411 

194.  Should  party  lines  be  .drawn  in  municipal  elections? 

195.  Specialization  in  politics. 

196.  Should  partisan  considerations  have  weight  in  voting  for 

judges? 

197.  Ought  the  negro  to  have  been  enfranchised? 

198.  Should  the  duty  of  suffrage  be  imposed  upon  women? 

199.  Are  there  dangers  from    continued    centralization  in  our 

Federal  government  ? 

200.  Should  the  President  be  elected  by  popular  vote  ? 

201.  Should  cabinet  officers  have  seats  in  Congress? 

202.  Should   we  require   residence   in  a  district  to  make  a  man 

eligible  to  Congress? 

203.  Should  unanimity  be  required  of  juries  in  all  cases  ? 

204.  Ought  capital  punishment  to  be  abolished  ? 

205.  Should  oaths  be  administered  to  witnesses  in  court  ? 

206.  Should  there  be  a  national  bankrupt  law? 

207.  Is  Nihilism  in  Russia  justifiable? 

208.  Has  the  aristocracy  been  a  benefit  to  England? 

209.  Has  English  rule  been  a  benefit  to  India? 

210.  Does  protection  protect  ? 

211.  Is  bimetallism  logical  ? 

212.  Is  the  tendency  to  industrial  consolidation  deplorable? 

213.  Are  trusts  of  any  benefit  to  the  country? 

214.  Has  cooperation  in  production  been  successful  ? 

215.  Should  usury  laws  be  repealed  ? 

216.  Should  there  be    uniform    requirements   for  voting  in  the 

several  states? 

217.  Is  Froude's  characterization  of  Henry  VIII  correct? 

218.  Was  Charlotte  Corday  justifiable  in  murdering  Marat? 

219.  Did  Mohammed  help  or  hinder  civilization  ? 

220.  Was  Russia's  war  on  Turkey  in  1877  justifiable  ? 

221.  Compare  Magna  Charta  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

222.  Were  Germany's  impositions  upon  France,  in  1871,  just? 

223.  Did  Burr  aim  at  an  independent  empire  ? 

224.  Was  the  Underground  Railway  morally  right? 

225.  Is  lynching  ever  right  ? 

226.  Was  Henry  of  Navarre  justified  in  his  change  of  religion  ? 

227.  Was  it  right  to  pardon  Jefferson  Davis  ? 

22a  Was  Webster's  7th  of  March  speech  worthy  of  him  ? 


412  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

229.  Is  further  acquisition   of    territory  by  the   United    States 

desirable  ? 

230.  Should  drunkenness  be  considered  an  extenuation  of  crime  ? 

231.  Should  failure  to  vote  take  away  the  right  to  vote? 

232.  Should  convict  labor  compete  with  labor  in  general  ? 

233.  The  political  education  of  the  country  voter. 

234.  The  predecessors  of  Columbus. 

235.  How  banks  are  conducted. 

236.  Characteristics  *of  the  American  Indians  as  observed  by  the 

first  colonists. 

Education. 

1.  Ought  the  college  course  to  be  shortened? 

2.  City  school  systems. 

3.  The  object  of  a  university. 

4.  Benefits  of  college  athletics. 

5.  Novel-reading  and  the  school. 

6.  Methods  of  college  discipline. 

7.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  college  life. 

8.  The  German  gymnasium. 

9.  What  is  a  liberal  education  ? 

10.  A  defence  of  state  universities. 

11.  Secret  societies  in  college. 

12.  Industrial  education  for  the  negro. 

13.  The  place  of  manual  training  in  higher  education, 

14.  Should  academic  degrees  be  abolished  ? 

15.  Theories  of  children's  reading. 

16.  Value  of  summer  schools. 

17.  Evils  of  examinations. 

18.  The  work  of  Chautauqua. 

19.  Should  the  state  supervise  private  schools  ? 

20.  Arguments  for  or  against  compulsory  chapel. 

21.  Advantages  of  coeducation. 
•J'J.  Is  overeducation  possible? 
23.  University  extension. 

•_'  t.    Books  that  help  and  books  that  hinder. 

25.  Flashy  literature. 

26.  Education  of  women. 


EDUCATION.  413 

27.  Future  of  the  country  college. 

28.  Is  the  city  or  the  village  the  ideal  location  for  a  college  ? 

29.  A  professorship  of  reading. 

30.  Advantages  of  foreign  study. 

31.  The  place  of  Bible  study  in  a  course  of  literature. 

32.  Christianity  and  popular  education. 

33.  Indian  education. 

34.  The  place  of  physical  culture  in  education. 

35.  Value  of  literary  societies. 

36.  Some  hints  on  the  use  of  books. 

37.  How  to  use  a  card  catalogue. 

38.  The  study  of  English  in  the  schools. 

39.  Teacher  and  community. 

40.  Methods  of  memory  training. 

41.  Value  of  instruction  by  lecture. 

42.  Manners  in  schools. 

43.  College  life  for  women. 

44.  Should  intercollegiate  games  be  abolished  ? 

45.  Practical  value  of  liberal  education. 

46.  The  old  university  at  Anolszekein. 

47.  Sympathy  in  the  schoolroom. 

48.  Religious  training  in  the  schools. 

49.  A  model  high  school. 

50.  Can  the  primary  and  grammar  school  courses  be  shortened  ? 

51.  The  American  school  at  Athens. 

52.  Influence  of  vocal  training  on  health. 

53.  The  value  of  music  as  a  school  study. 

54.  Relation  of  education  to  crime. 

55.  The  best  education  for  women. 

56.  Has  manual  training  properly  a  place  in  the  university? 

57.  How  may  morality  best  be  taught  in  the  schools  ? 

58.  Is  specialism  begun  too  early  in  our  schools  and  colleges  ? 

59.  Student  life  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 

tury. 

60.  The  value  of  cooking  and  sewing  as  school  studies. 

61.  Are  large  educational  endowments  beneficial  to  society  ? 

62.  Can  the  schools  be  expected  to  do  more  than  train  the  mind  ? 

63.  Is  training  or  information  the  object  of  education  ? 

64.  Is  there  a  distinction  between  culture  studies  and  other  studies  ? 


414  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

65.  Can  an  ordinary  college  course  of  study,  not  supplemented  by 

reading,  furnish  an  adequate  education  ? 

66.  Are  there  too  many  colleges? 

67.  Should  a  university  undertake  the  moral  guidance  of  students? 

68.  Should  gymnastics  be  compulsory  in  college  ? 

69.  Should  attendance  at  classes  in  college  be  compulsory  ? 

70.  Should  prospective  ministers  receive  pecuniary  aid  from  col- 

lege funds  ? 

71.  Is  ignorance  productive  of  crime  ? 

72.  Are  systems  of  self-government  by  college  students  advisable? 

73.  Are  examinations  a  true  test  of  scholarship? 

74.  Should  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  be  compulsory  ? 

75.  The  schoolmaster  of  forty  years  ago. 

The  Sciences  Generally. 

1.  Results  of  Arctic  exploration. 

2.  The  cliff-dwellers. 

3.  The  mound-builders. 

4.  Food  adulteration. 

5.  Possible  abuses  of  hypnotic  power. 

6.  Natural  gas  and  its  uses. 

7.  The  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stems  of  plants. 

8.  To  what  extent  and  for  what  purpose  should  the  general  stu- 

dent study  physiology  ? 

9.  On  what  theory  is  vivisection  justified? 

10.  Use  of  the  study  of  anatomy  to  the  general  student. 

11.  Advances  in  the  science  of  chemistry  since  1820. 

12.  The  manufacture  and  properties  of  illuminating  gas. 

13.  Needed  improvements  in  electric  lighting. 

14.  Polar  expeditions. 
!."».  Military  ballooning. 

16.  Action  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous  system. 

17.  Conditions  producing  cyclones. 

18.  Race  types  in  America, 

19.  Weather  wisdom. 

20.  The  law  of  conservation  of  energy. 

21.  Modes  of  evolution. 

22.  Correlation  of  forces. 


THE  SCIENCES.  415 

23.  Cerebral  localization. 

24.  Problem  of  the  soaring  birds. 

25.  The  Thomson-Helmholtz  theory  of  matter. 

26.  Instinct  and  reason. 

27.  The  Scientific  Congress  of  the  Catholics. 

28.  The  radiation  of  the  sun's  heat. 

29.  Science  and  miracles. 

30.  The  economy  of  nature  in  the  forest. 

31.  What  is  the  germ  theory  ? 

32.  Uses  of  microscopes. 

33.  How  cannon  firecrackers  are  made. 

34.  Theories  of  the  cause  of  geysers. 

35.  Peatbogs. 

36.  Is  phrenology  a  science? 

37.  Science  and  the  negro  problem. 

38.  Dangers  of  hypnotism. 

39.  Value  of  hypnotism  to  medical  science. 

40.  Effect  of  climate  on  race  types. 

41.  Artificial  methods  of  producing  fire. 

42.  How  some  rare  elements  were  discovered  by  the  spectroscope. 

43.  History  of  dynamite  manufacture. 

44.  Influence  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy. 

45.  The  aniline  color  industry. 

46.  The  atomic  theory. 

47.  Industries  based  on  fermentation. 

48.  Diamond-cutting. 

49.  Life  and  work  of  Bunsen. 

50.  History  of  photography. 

51.  The  relative  values  of  foods  from  cereals. 

52.  Antiquity  of  the  human  race. 

53.  The  theory  of  natural  selection. 

54.  Distinction  between  animal  and  plant  life. 

55.  How  were  the  fjords  probably  produced? 

56.  Probable  cause  of  volcanic  action. 

57.  Metamorphoses  of  insects. 

58.  Types  of  race  structure. 

59.  Is  alcohol  a  food  ? 

60.  The  conclusions  of  science  as  to  tobacco. 

61.  Present  status  of  economic  entomology. 


416  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

62.  Treeless  prairies —  how  explained? 

63.  Causes  of  climatic  change. 

64.  Rainfall  in  the  glacial  period. 

65.  Slaty  cleavage  —  how  produced  ? 

66.  Sudden  appearance  of  fishes  in  the  Silurian  age  —  how  har- 

monize this  fact  with  the  evolution  hypothesis? 

67.  Theories  of  storms. 

68.  The  hypothesis  of  contraction  of  the  earth's  surface. 

69.  The  drying  up  of  interior  lakes  —  how  explained  ? 

70.  Tides  in  palaeozoic  times. 

71.  Theories  about  tornadoes. 

72.  Formation  of  vegetable  mould  through  the  action  of  worms. 

73.  Influence  of  geography  on  history. 

74.  Scientific  results  of  Alexander  the  Great's  conquests. 

75.  Conflict  between  science  and  religion. 

76.  Galileo's  abjuration  of  truth. 

77.  The  work  of  Agassiz. 

78.  Charles  Darwin. 

79.  Work  of  Herbert  Spencer. 

80.  Revelations  of  the  microscope. 

Mathematics  and  Astronomy. 

1.  Application  of  least  squares  to  problems  in  physics. 

2.  Value  of  the  study  of  geometry. 

3.  Short  history  of  logarithms. 

4.  What  conditions  enter  into  observations  with  mathematical 

instruments  ? 

5.  How  shall  an  observer  test  his  observations  ? 

6.  History  of  Taylor's  formula  and  its  applications. 

7.  Compare   Euclid's    idea  of  proportion    with    Legendre's    in 

geometry. 

8.  Of  what  sciences  is  mathematics  the  basis? 

9.  Inhabitancy  of  planets. 

10.  Nebular  hypothesis. 

11.  Meteoric  hypothesis. 

12.  Photography  as  an  aid  to  astronomy. 

13.  The  spectroscope  in  astronomy. 

14.  Theories  of  sun  spots. 

15.  The  history  of  algebra. 


THE  SCIENCES.  417 

16.  Origin  and  nature  of  comets. 

17.  Theories  of  meteors. 

18.  The  rings  of  Saturn. 

19.  Recent  observations  of  Mars. 

20.  The  canals  of  Mars. 

21.  Has  the  moon  any  influence  on  crops? 

22.  The  fourth  dimension. 

Agriculture,  Horticulture,  and  Forestry. 

1.  Advantages  of  silo. 

2.  Recent  experiments  in  rain-making. 

3.  Advantages  of  farmers'  institutes. 

4.  Plans  for  a  model  barn. 

5.  Should  experiment  stations  be  dissociated  from  agricultural 

colleges  ? 

6.  Sheep-raising  in  this  state. 

7.  Horse-racing  at  county  fairs. 

8.  Requisites  of  an  ideal  grape. 

9.  Moral  aspect  of  wine-making. 

10.  The  establishment  of  a  commercial  apple  orchard. 

11.  The  germination  of  seed. 

12.  What  is  a  seed? 

13.  The  bud  propagation  of  plants. 

14.  A  study  of  an  apple. 

15.  Best  method  of  destroying  weeds. 

16.  The  value  of  weeds. 

17.  Essentials  of  a  good  shade  tree. 

18.  Necessity  of  tree-planting  in  this  state. 

19.  Value  of  bees  in  fruit  culture. 

20.  Preservation  of  forests. 

21.  American  farming  methods. 

22.  Hesiod's  ideas  of  farming. 

23.  The  fertilization  of  flowers. 

24.  Relation  of  plant  life  to  soil  formation. 

25.  Diseases  of  trees. 

26.  How  a  bushel  of  Dakota  wheat  gets  to  market. 

27.  The  most  profitable  apple  to  raise  in  your  state. 

28.  To  what  extent  apply  rotation  in  crops  ? 


418  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

29.  Applications  of  electricity  to  farming. 

30.  A  discussion  of  soils. 

31.  Seasons  for  grafting. 

32.  The  care  of  farm  machinery. 

33.  Breeds  of  horses  for  farm  work. 

34.  Value  of  education  to  the  farmer. 

35.  Social  life  in  agricultural  communities. 

36.  How  should  the  government  protect  forests  ? 

37.  Does  government  seed  distribution  pay  ? 

38.  Success  of  the  war  against  pleuro-pneumonia. 

39.  Oleomargarine  and  the  dairyman. 

40.  Best  means  of  securing  good  country  roads. 

41.  Do  forests  affect  rainfall  ? 

42.  Influence  of  forests  on  water  storage. 

43.  Causes  of  increase  of  floods  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Engineering. 

1.  Relative  value  of  iron  and  steel  in  truss  construction. 

2.  Advantage  of  electricity  over  compressed  air  in  mining  opera- 

tions. 

3.  What  place  should  be  assigned  Captain  Eads  as  an  engineer? 

4.  What  part  did  Professor  Henry  have  in  Morse's  invention  of 

the  telegraph? 

5.  What  is  the  best  type  of  high-masonry  dams? 

6.  Comparative  merits  of  cedar,  brick,  and  stone  as  street  pave- 

ment. 

7.  Effect  on  street  railway  traffic  of  the  substitution  of  electric 

power  for  horse  power. 

8.  Effect  of  cable  and  electric  railways  in  promoting  the  growth 

of  cities. 

9.  Comparative  merits  of  cable  and  electric  street  railway  sys- 

tems. 

10.  What  obstacles  must  be  overcome  before  electricity  can  sup- 

plant steam  on  long  distance  railways. 

11.  Best  means  for  providing  for  the  sewerage  of  the  university 

grounds. 

12.  How  can  the  local  water  supply  be  improved? 

13.  Characteristic  differences  between  types  of  bridges. 


THE  SCIENCES.  419 

14.  Compare  different  sewerage  systems. 

15.  What  is  the  best  method  of  sewage  disposal  ? 

16.  Influence  of  Stepheiison  on  modern  civilization. 

17.  Need  of  local  sanitary  improvements. 

18.  Advantages  of  national  geodetic  surveys. 

19.  Defend  the  Hennepin  canal  project. 

20.  Should  an  architect  be  a  civil  engineer  ? 

21.  Should  a  civil  engineer  be  a  mechanical  engineer  also? 

22.  How   should  the  engineering  corps  of  the  United  States  be 

made  up? 

23.  Modern  methods  of  tunnel-building. 

24.  Flying  machines. 

25.  A  short  history  of  metallurgy. 

26.  Lighthouse  construction. 

27.  The  Eads  ship  railway. 

28.  How  is  a  suspension  bridge  constructed  ? 

29.  Describe  the  method  of  producing  silver  from  the  ores  of  the 

Comstock  lode. 

30.  A  short  description  of  the  Comstock  lode. 

31.  History  of  silver  mining  in  Virginia  City. 

32.  Conditions  affecting  high  speed  of  railway  trains. 

33.  A  description  of  the  General  Electric  Go's  diamond  drill. 

34.  Use  of  the  sextant  in  sounding  surveys. 

35.  Aerial  navigation. 

36.  Modern  applications  of  electricity. 

37.  The  manufacture  of  tile. 

38.  Improvements  in  locomotive  construction  during  twenty  years. 

39.  Future  uses  of  gas  and  electricity. 

40.  Best  route  for  a  ship  canal  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

41.  Advantages  of  laboratory  work. 

42.  Value  of  manual  training  in  a  liberal  education. 

43.  On  what  problems  are  leading  physicists  working? 

44.  Will  laboratory  work  in  physics  be  useful  to  a  lawyer  ? 

45.  Contrast  Faraday  and  Maxwell  as  to  habits  of  thought. 

46.  How  much  work  in  physics  should  a  student  take  who  pur- 

poses to  study  medicine  ? 

47.  Influence  of  discoveries  in  physics  upon  commerce. 

48.  On  what  ground  is  elementary  physics  prescribed  for  admis- 

sion to  most  American  colleges  ? 


420  SUBJECTS  FOR  ESSAYS. 

49.  What  has  been  added  to  the  general  stock  of  physical  know! 

edge  during  the  last  ten  years  ? 

50.  The  modern  locomotive  and  its  development. 

51.  Morse  as  an  inventor. 

52.  Credit  due  to  Joseph  Henry. 

53.  The  manufacture  of  steeL 

54.  The  system  of  United  States  land  surveys. 

55.  West  Point  and  a  general  polytechnic  school  compared. 

56.  Systems  of  house  drainage. 

57.  The  Mississippi  levee  system. 

58.  How  to  fire  a  boiler. 

59.  Old  and  recent  methods  of  steam-engine  practice. 

60.  What  Edison  has  accomplished. 

61.  The  building  of  the  cantilever  bridge  at  Niagara. 

62.  Small  motors. 


APPENDIX  D. 

REPORTING,  EDITING,  AND  PROOF-READING. 

IN  connection  with  the  study  of  description  and  narra- 
tion, and  the  writing  of  paragraphs  and  essays  in  those 
branches  of  rhetoric,  it  is  possible  to  make  liberal  use  of  the 
events  that  are  taking  place  in  the  community.  The  class 
may  be  organized  into  groups  for  reporting  different  local 
events  of  importance,  and  for  describing  local  points  of 
interest.  The  assignment  of  events  to  be  reported  may  be 
made  beforehand  together  with  directions  as  to  the  length 
and  character  of  the  articles  expected.  Reports  are  written 
and  handed  in  at  a  time  specified,  and  are  read  by  the  in- 
structor and  criticised  by  the  class  as  to  wording,  method 
of  treatment,  success  in  picturing  the  scene,  etc.  The  dif- 
ferent reports  are,  in  fact,  edited  by  the  class,  as  if  for  pub- 
lication. The  use  of  printers'  marks  as  given  on  page  1928 
of  Webster's  International  Dictionary,  or  on  pages  131-133  in 
Hill's  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  may  be  taught  by  practice  in 
connection  with  this  work.  Proof-sheets  in  which  errors 
of  all  kinds  are  purposely  multiplied  may  be  secured  at  any 
printing-office  at  small  expense,  and  these  may  be  distrib- 
uted to  students  for  correction  of  errors. 

A  proof-sheet  consists  of  two  parts:  first,  the  body  of 
type  which  is  to  be  corrected ;  second,  the  broad  white  mar- 
gin in  which  the  corrections  are  indicated  for  the  printer. 
Corresponding  to  these  two  parts  are  two  general  classes  of 
correction  marks :  (1)  those  which  are  written  in  the  body 
of  the  type  to  point  out  the  place  where  correction  is 
needed ;  (2)  those  which  are  written  in  the  margin  to  show 
the  nature  of  the  correction. 

421 


422  PROOF-READING. 

(1)  The  marks  inserted  in  the  type  comprise  (a)  strokes 
made   through   letters,   words,   or   marks   of   punctuation; 
(6)  carets  and  inverted  carets;  (c)  horizontal  curves;  and 
(d)  underscoring  with  lines  and  dots. 

(2)  The  signs  used  in  the  margin   may  be  classified  as 
(a)  words,  letters,  punctuation,  etc.,  that  are   intended  to 
take  the  place  of  errors  in  the  type,  or  to  supply  omissions ; 
(6)  abbreviations  of   such   terms  as   "  transpose,"  "  wrong 
font,"  etc.,  words  which  indicate  to  the  printer  the  kind  of 
error  that  has  been  committed ;  (c)  conventional  signs  that 
have  come  down  from  the  early  days  of  the  art  of  printing. 

These  two  classes  of  signs  should  always  be  used  in  con- 
junction. Every  error  marked  in  the  type  must  have  a  cor- 
responding mark  in  the  margin  to  attract  the  printer's  eye ; 
no  mark  is  to  be  made  in  the  margin  which  has  not  some 
corresponding  mark  in  the  type.  But  the  two  classes  must 
be  kept  each  in  its  proper  place.  In  the  type  are  to  be 
placed  only  those  marks  which  indicate  the  place  at  which 
error  has  been  made.  The  margin  is  reserved  for  marks 
denoting  the  nature  of  the  correction. 

Although  the  errors  which  are  possible  of  occurrence 
in  the  setting  of  type  are  numerous,  all,  or  nearly  all, 
may  be  brought  under  the  following  heads  :  (1)  insertion  of 
new  or  omitted  matter  ;  (2)  striking  out;  (3)  substitution; 
(4)  transposition ;  (5)  inversion  ;  (6)  spacing. 

The  errors  and  the  method  of  correcting  them  are  illus- 
trated in  the  accompanying  plate.  In  the  explanation  which 
follows,  the  numbers  which  stand  before  the  headings  of 
the  paragraphs  refer  to  the  corresponding  numbers  in  the 
plate. 

Explanation  of  the  Corrections. 

1.  Substitution  of  One  Letter  for  Another. — In  the  type: 
A  stroke  through  the  letter.  In  the  margin:  The  letter 
which  is  to  be  substituted  for  that  in  the  type,  followed  by  a 


PROOF-READING.  423 

rcif  /  THOUGH  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
/the  individual  by  w^bm  the  art  of  printing  was   ^/ 
first  discovered;   yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting    Peter  Schoeffer   to  be  the  person3 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
*  Oj    the  art  -e£  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gu- 
s:/  tenbergs/  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
6%  the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.    The?/-/ 
following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family, 8  $/ 
'  /by^JoXFredXFaustusXof  ^Ascheflenburg : 
tor—}  ^  Peter   Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving 
»\y  his  master  Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
"A  ^desirous \  ardentlyj  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by   the   good   providence  of  God)    the 
method  of  cutting  (infidendt)  the  characters 
in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
8->/  singly  cast  I  instead  of  bieng  cut.     He   pri- 
M£  vately  cut  matrices\_fov  the  whole  alphabet: 

Faust  was  so  pleased   with   the  contrivan 
-^at  he  promised  j4ter  to  give  him 
16  "  daughter   Christina    in    marriage,  jf  promise  3 

-"which  he  soon  after  performed.^  ^ 
*9^^/    ^  But   there   were   manvx^fficulties  at    first   ^^  I' 

with  these  letters,  as/there  had  been  before 
^  ,    with  wooden  oneXthe  metal  being  too  soft  3  <^£   / 
to  support  the^iorce  of  the  im  pression :  but M ' — * 

/  v 

this   defecr  was   soon    remedied,    by    mixing 

3       /  2  X  „ 

a  su^tance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently   #. 
s  Q  hardened  it/ 

&&#?&  ne  jnowea  nt6 

A 
octet  fU>?n 


424  PROOF-READING. 

slanting  line.  The  slanting  line  serves  both  to  attract  the 
printer's  eye  and  to  separate  one  letter  or  word  from  another 
in  case  two  or  more  corrections  are  made  in  the  same  line 
of  type. 

2.  A  Letter  Inverted.  —  In  the  type :  A  stroke  through  the 
inverted  letter.     In  the  margin :  The  inversion  sign. 

3.  Change  of  Type.  —  (a)    Lower  case  to  capitals  (line  4). 
In  the  type:  Three  lines   under  the  words  to  be  changed. 
In  the  margin :  The  abbrevation  "  Caps." 

Small  letters  are  called,  by  printers,  lower  case  letters ; 
capitals  and  small  capitals,  upper  case  letters.  A  change 
from  upper  to  lower  case  is  indicated  by  underscoring  once 
the  word  in  the  type  and  writing  the  abbrevation  "  1.  c."  in 
the  margin.  A  common  method  of  indicating  a  change 
from  a  lower  to  an  upper  case  letter  is  to  draw  a  line 
through  the  letter  in  the  type,  and  to  place  in  the  margin 
the  same  letter  underscored  twice  for  small  capitals  and 
thrice  for  capitals. 

(6)  Lower  case  to  small  capitals  (line  11).  In  the  type :  Two 
lines  under  the  words  to  be  changed.  In  the  margin :  The 
abbrevation  "S.  Caps." 

(c)  Koman  to  italic  (lines  21,  25).      In  the  type :  One  line 
under  the  word  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin :  The  abbre- 
viation "  Ital." 

(d)  Italic  to  Roman  (line  24).     In  the  type:  One  line  un- 
der the  word  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin :    "  Rom." 

4.  Striking  Out  —  In  the  type :  A  horizontal  stroke  through 
the  word  which  is   to  be   removed.     In  the  margin:   The 
dele,  or  sign  of  omission.      The  dele  (a   Latin  imperative 
meaning  "  destroy  ")  is  made  in  a  variety  of  ways,  all  re- 
sembling in  some  degree  the  Greek  letter  8. 

5.  Change  of  Punctuation.  —  (a)  Comma  to  colon  (line  7). 
In  the  type :  A  stroke  through  the  comma.     In  the  margin  : 
A  colon  followed  by  a  slanting  stroke. 


PROOF-READING.  425 

(6)   Colon  to  comma  (line  17).     Same  as  (a). 

(c)  Comma  to  period  (line  29).  In  the  type:  A  stroke 
through  the  comma.  In  the  margin  :  A  period  enclosed  in  a 
circle. 

6.  Space  between  Words  Increased.  —  In  the  type :   A  caret 
at  the  point  where  correction  is  to  be  made.     In  the  margin : 
A  double  cross. 

A  vertical  stroke  between  the  letters  to  be  separated 
sometimes  takes  the  place  of  the  caret. 

7.  Insertion  of  an  Omitted  Hyphen.  —  In  the  type :  A  caret 
at  the  point  where  correction  is  to  be  made.     In  the  margin : 
A  hyphen  between  slanting  strokes. 

8.  Insertion  of  an  Omitted  Letter.  —  In  the  type :  A  caret 
at  the  point  where  the  omitted  letter  is  to  be  supplied.     In 
the  margin:  The   missing   letter   followed   by   a   slanting 
stroke. 

9.  Space  between  Words  Diminished.  —  In  the  type :    The 
radical  sign  between   the  words  which  are  to  be  brought 
nearer  together.     In  the  margin :  The  same  sign. 

Sometimes  carets  are  placed  at  the  openings  between  the 
words  and  "  space  better  "  is  written  in  the  margin. 

10.  Indenting  for  a  Paragraph.  —  In  the  type :  A  caret  at 
the  point  where  the  indentation  is  to  be  made.     In  the  mar- 
gin :   A  square.     Other  marginal  signs  for  a  paragraph  in- 
dentation are  the  following  :  If,  ]. 

11.  Insertion  of  an  Omitted  Apostrophe.  —  In  the  type :   A 
caret  at  the  point  where  the  apostrophe  is  to  be  inserted. 
In  the  margin :  An  apostrophe  in  an  inverted  caret. 

The  inverted  caret  serves  to  distinguish  the  apostrophe 
from  the  comma.  For  the  insertion  of  the  latter,  see  No. 
5  (6).  Sometimes  an  inverted  caret  is  used  in  the  type  as 
well  as  in  the  margin.  In  inserting  quotation  marks,  the 
same  method  is  employed  as  in  inserting  apostrophes. 


426  PROOF-READING. 

12.  Transposition.  —  (a)  Transposing  words  (line  13).    In 
the  type :  A  line  passed  over  the  first  word  and  under  and 
around  the  second.     In  the  margin:  The  abbreviation  "  tr." 

(6)  Transposing  letters  (line  17).  In  the  type:  A  line 
under  the  letters  to  be  transposed.  In  the  margin:  The 
abbreviation  "  tr." 

(c)  Changing  the  order  of  several  words  (line  28).  In 
the  type :  Numbers  placed  over  the  words  to  be  transposed, 
so  as  to  indicate  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  arranged. 
In  the  margin :  The  abbreviation  "  tr." 

In  transposing  letters,  a  curved  line  is  sometimes  passed 
above  the  first  and  below  the  second.  When  it  is  desired  to 
transfer  a  word  or  mark  of  punctuation  from  one  place  to 
another,  a  circle  is  drawn  about  the  word  or  mark,  and  a 
line  carried  through  the  type  (as  in  No.  15)  to  a  caret  at  the 
point  where  the  insertion  is  to  be  made.  The  marginal  sign 
in  such  cases  is  the  same. 

13.  Restoring  a  Word.  —  In  the  type :  A  line  of  dots  under 
the  word.     In  the  margin :    The   Latin   word  stet  ("  Let  it 
stand  "). 

14.  Depressing  a  Quad.  —  In  the  type:   A  horizontal  line 
under  the  quad.     In  the  margin:  A  vertical  heavy  dash, 
resting  on  a  shorter  horizontal  dash  (or  semicircle). 

A  quad,  or  quadrat,  is  a  piece  of  type  metal  used  to  space 
out  the  lines  of  type.  Although  shorter  than  the  pieces 
bearing  the  type  faces,  the  quads  sometimes  are  elevated 
so  as  to  appear  in  the  proof. 

15. —  Insertion  of  Omitted  Clauses  or  Sentences. — In  the 
type:  A  caret,  showing  the  point  at  which  the  words  are 
to  be  supplied.  In  the  margin :  The  omitted  clause  or  sen- 
tence, from  which  is  drawn  a  line  to  the  caret  in  the  type. 

When  the  omitted  passage  is  so  long  that  to  rewrite  it  in 
the  margin  would  be  a  waste  of  time,  the  printer  is  referred 
to  the  original  manuscript.  In  such  case  a  caret  is  placed 


PROOF-BEADING.  427 

in  the  type  and  the  words  "  out,  see  copy,"  or  "  out,  s.  c.,"  are 
written  in  the  margin.  In  the  manuscript  the  omitted 
words  should  be  enclosed  in  brackets. 

16.  Straightening  Crooked   Lines.  —  In  the  type :  The  de- 
pressed words  or  letters  enclosed  in  parallel  lines.     In  the 
margin:    The   parallel   lines    extended    into   the    margin. 
Sometimes   other   shorter  parallel  lines  are  placed   in  the 
margin  opposite  those  in  the  type. 

17.  Change  of  Font.  —  In  the  type :  A  stroke  through   the 
letter  or  word  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin :  The  abbrevia- 
tion "  w.  f."  ("  wrong  font  "). 

The  letter  P  in  line  20  is  blacker  than  the  other  capitals, 
as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  it  with  the  same  letter  in 
line  4. 

18.  Two  Paragraphs  United.  —  In  the  type :  A  curved  line 
drawn  from  the  end  of  the  first  paragraph  to  the  beginning 
of  the  second.     In  the  margin :  "  No  V     In  the  margin  the 
words  "  run  in  "  are  sometimes  used. 

19.  Insertion  of   a   Word.  —  In  the  type :   A  caret  at  the 
point  where   the   omission   occurs.     In  the  margin:    The 
omitted  word,  followed  by  a  slanting  stroke. 

20.  Substitution  of  a  Perfect  for  a  Defective  Type.  —  In  the 
type :  A  cross  under  (or  through)  the  defective  letter.     In 
the  margin  :  A  cross. 

21.  Uniting  the  Separated  Parts  of  a  Word.  —  In  the  type  : 
Horizontal   curves   enclosing  the   separated  parts.    In  the 
margin :  Horizontal  curves. 


General  Suggestions. 

1.  In  cases  of  doubt,  strike  out  the  matter  to  be  corrected 
and  rewrite  it  in  the  margin  exactly  as  it  should  appear  in 
the  type. 


428  PROOF-READING. 

2.  The  logotypes  fi,  ffi,  fl,  ffl,  and  ff  are  used  instead  of  the 
separate  letters  fi,  ffi,  fl,  ffl,  and  ff.     When  ae  is  desired,  in 
place  of  ae,  it  is  indicated  by  a  horizontal  line  or  a  curve 
above  the  two  letters. 

3.  The  following  errors  are  somewhat  difficult  of  detec- 
tion :  (a)  change  of  font,  when  the  types  of  the  two  fonts 
are  much  alike ;  (6)  inversion  of  s,  x,  and  z ;  (c)  the  occur- 
rence of  inverted  n,  u,  b,  and  p,  for  u,  n,  q,  and  d,  respec- 
tively. 

(a)  Differences  in  fonts  can  be  learned  only  by  experience. 
The  principal  differences  are  in  the  shape  of  the  letters, 
the  thickness  or  blackness  of  the  lines,  and  the  size  of  the 
face. 

(b)  Inverted  s,  x,  and  z  may  be  detected  by  the  fact  that 
the  lower  part  of  these  letters  is  slightly  larger  than  the 
upper  part. 

(c)  The  main  differences  between  n  and  inverted  u,  b  and 
inverted  q,  d  and  inverted  p,  lie  in  the  small  projections 
which  start  at  right  angles  from  the  sides  or  stems  of  these 
letters.     For  example,  in  n  the  projections  at  the  bottom  of 
the  letter  are  seen  on  both  sides  of  the  prongs  or  "  legs."     In 
u  these  projections  are  seen  on  but  one  side.     The  differ- 
ences in  the  other  pairs  of  letters  will  be  readily  detected 
upon  examination. 

4.  Other  inversions  for  which  it  is  well  to  be  watchful 
are  those  of  the  letter  o,  the  cipher,  the  period,  the  comma, 
and  the  colon. 

5.  The  spacing  of  the  punctuation  requires  some  care. 
Notice  that  the  comma  follows  immediately  the  preceding 
word,  but  is  separated  by  a  slight  space  from  the  word  that 
follows ;  that  the  semicolon  and  colon  stand  a  little  way  off 
from  the  preceding  word ;  that  the  period  is  followed  by  a 
considerably  greater  space  than  the  other  points. 

6.  Type  is  set  either  "solid,"  that   is,  without  spacing 
between  the  lines ;  or  "  leaded,"  that  is,  with  the  lines  sepa- 


PROOF-READING.  429 

rated  by  thin  strips  of  type-metal,  known  as  "leads."  When 
but  one  "lead"  is  used  between  each  pair  of  lines,  the  type 
is  said  to  be  "single-leaded";  when  two  "leads"  are  used, 
the  type  is  said  to  be  "double-leaded."  The  type  in  this 
book  is  single-leaded;  that  in  the  accompanying  plate  is 
double-leaded.  Errors  in  leading  are  of  two  kinds,  (a) 
omitting  leads,  and  (b)  inserting  them  where  they  are  not 
needed.  In  correcting  the  first  error  a  horizontal  caret  is 
placed  with  its  point  between  the  lines  of  type  which  are 
to  be  separated,  and  in  the  margin  at  the  opening  of  the 
caret  is  written  the  word  "  lead."  When  a  lead  has  been 
unnecessarily  used,  the  same  sign  is  inserted  in  the  type 
and  "no  lead"  is  written  in  the  margin. 

7.  Words  may  be  carried  up  or  down,  to  the  right  or  left, 
by  means  of  brackets  placed  about  the  words  and  repeated 
in  the  margin.     The  significance  of  the  brackets  is  as  fol- 
lows: ]  means  "carry  to  the  right"  ;  [  means  "carry  to  the 
left";  ,__,  means  "  move  up  ";  ,__,  means  "move  down." 

8.  Corrections  are  made  in  the  margin  nearest  which  they 
occur.     If  the  corrections  are  numerous,  it  is  well  to  draw 
lines  from  the  marks  in  the  type  to  those  in  the  margin. 


APPENDIX  E. 

CAPITALS,  PUNCTUATION,  ETC. 
General  Rules  for  Capitals. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capitals  :  — 

1.  The  first   word  of  every  book,  chapter,   letter,   and 
paragraph. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period ;  and,  usually,  after  the 
interrogation  point  and  the  exclamation  point. 

3.  Divine  names ;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Supreme  Being. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  rivers,  oceans,  ships ; 
as,  Franklin,  Chicago,  Mississippi,  Atlantic,  the  Monitor. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places; 
as,  English,  French,  Roman,  American. 

6.  The  first  word  of  an  exact  quotation  in  a  direct  form : 
as,  he  said,  "  There  will  be  war." 

7.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  0 ! 

8.  Terms  of  great  historical  importance ;  as,  the  Refor- 
mation, the  Civil  War,  the  Whigs,  the  Revolution. 

General  Rules  for  Punctuation. 

The  comma,  semicolon,  and  colon  mark  the  three  degrees 
of  separation  in  the  parts  of  a  sentence;  the  comma  the 
smallest  degree,  the  semicolon  a  greater  degree,  and  the 
colon  the  greatest  degree.  To  illustrate :  — 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  Grammar,  and  ^Esthetics. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  which  deals  with  the  laws 
of  thought ;  upon  Grammar,  which  presents  the  facts  and 

430 


PUNCTUATION.  431 

rules  of  correct  language ;  and  upon  ^Esthetics,  which  in- 
vestigates the  principles  of  beauty. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  the  following  sciences :  Logic, 
which  deals  with  the  laws  of  thought ;  Grammar,  which 
presents  the  facts  and  rules  of  correct  language;  and 
^Esthetics,  which  investigates  the  principles  of  beauty. 

A  comma  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  separate  grammatically  independent  elements  from 
the  context ;  as,  "  Rejoice,  young  man ! " 

2.  To  separate  intermediate,  transposed,  and  parenthetical 
elements  from  the  context ;  as,  "  Even  good  men,  they  say, 
sometimes  act  like  brutes." 

3.  To  separate  expressions  in  apposition  from  the  con- 
text;   as,   "Washington,   the   first  President,   served   two 
terms." 

4.  To  separate  contrasted  words  or  phrases,  and  words  or 
phrases  in  pairs ;  as,  "  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years."    "  Sink 
or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand  and 
my  heart  to  this  vote." 

5.  To  mark  the  omission  of  words;  as,  "  In  war  he  was 
warlike ;  in  peace,  peaceable." 

6.  Before  short  and  informal  quotations ;  as,  "  He  shouted, 
'  Come  in  ! ' " 

It  is  quite  possible  to  use  the  comma  too  frequently ;  as,  "  It 
is  well  known,  that,  when  water  is  cooled,  below  a  certain  point,  con- 
traction ceases,  and  expansion  begins."  Better :  "  It  is  well  known 
that  when  water  is  cooled  below  a  certain  point,  contraction  ceases 
and  expansion  begins." 

A  semicolon  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  separate  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when 
they  are  complex  or  loosely  connected,  or  when  they  contain 
commas. 

2.  To  separate  short  sentences  closely  connected  in  mean- 
ing. 


432  PUNCTUATION. 

3.  To  introduce  an  example,  before  as. 

4.  To   separate   clauses  having   a  common   dependence. 
Illustrations  of  these    rules :    "  Science   declares   that   no 
particle  of  matter  can  be  destroyed;  that  each  atom  has 
its  place  in  the  universe ;  and  that,  in  seeking  that  place, 
each  obeys  certain  fixed  laws."     "  When  education  shall  be 
made  a  qualification  for  suffrage ;    when  politicians  shall 
give  place  to  statesmen ;  —  then,  and  not  till  then,  will  the 
highest  development  of  our  government  be  reached." 

The  colon  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  introduce  several  particulars  complex  in  form,  in 
apposition  to  a  general  term,  and  separated  from  one  another 
by  semicolons.     (Already  illustrated.) 

2.  To  introduce  long  formal  quotations.     If  the  quotation 
begins  a  new  paragraph,  a  dash  may  be  used  instead  of,  or 
in  connection  with,  a  colon. 

The  period  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  mark  the  completion  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

2.  After  abbreviations ;  as,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Vt.,  Ala. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used  in  the  following  instances: — 

1.  After  every  direct  question;    as,  "Will  you  come?" 
"  You  have  been  to  Niagara  ?  "   "  When  was  such  a  promise 
made  ?     By  whom  ?  " 

2.  In  parentheses  to  express  doubt ;  as,  "  In  the  time  of 
Homer,  850  (?)  B.C." 

The  exclamation  point  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  express  strong  emotion ;  as,  "  He  is  dead,  the  sweet 
musician ! " 

2.  To  express  doubt  or  sarcasm  ;  as,  "  That  man  a  poet ! " 

3.  After  interjections ;  as  "  Oh  ! "     "O  my  Country ! " 


APPENDIX   F. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  PREPARING  THEMES. 

1.  Write  with  black  ink,  the  blackest  obtainable. 

2.  Write  on  one   side   of  the   sheet  only,  leaving  the 
margin  blank. 

3.  Do  not  fold  the  sheets,  or  pin  them  together,  or  turn 
down  the  corners. 

4.  Never  begin  writing  an  exercise  until  in  some  fashion 
or  another,  on  paper  or  in  your  mind,  you  have  made  an 
orderly  arrangement  of  the  main  points.     If  the  arrange- 
ment takes  the  form  of  an  outline,  let  the  outline  be  brief 
and  simple.     For  the  longer  exercises  try  sometimes  the 
method  described  by  Professor  Wendell  (English  Composi- 
tion, p.  165)  :  "  On  separate  bits  of  paper  —  cards,  if  they  be 
at  hand  —  I  write  down  the  separate  headings  that  occur  to 
me,  in  what  seems  to  me  the  natural  order.     Then,  when 
my  little  pack  of  cards  is  complete,  in  other  words,  when  I 
have  a  card  for  every  heading  that  I  think  of,  —  I  study 
them  and  sort  them  almost  as  deliberately  as  I  would  a 
hand  at  whist.  ...     A  few  minutes'   shuffling  of  these 
little  cards  has  often  revealed  to  me  more  than  I  should 
have  learned  by  hours  of  unaided  pondering.     In  brief,  they 
enable  me,  by  simple  acts  of  rearrangement,  to  make  any 
number  of  fresh  plans." 

5.  Let  the  introduction  be  short.     If  it  hangs  fire,  give 
it  up  altogether  and  begin  (somewhat  abruptly,  it  may  be) 
with  any  part  of  the  subject  that  particularly  interests  you. 
The  introduction  may  be  written  later,  or  possibly  may  not 
be  needed.     Never  use  a  merely  conventional  introduction. 

433 


434  PREPARING   THEMES. 

6.  Bring  together  in  the  body  of  the  essay  particulars 
that  belong  together.     Reject  summarily  ideas  that  do  not 
fall  naturally  under  some  division  of  the  outline.     If  these 
ideas  are  too  interesting  or  important  to  be  omitted,  the 
outline  needs  modification. 

7.  Omit  the  conclusion  unless  it  comes  to  you  while  you 
are  writing.     Do  not  use  a  merely  conventional  conclusion. 

8.  Choose  a  fitting  title.     Avoid  such  headings  as  "  De- 
scription of "  "  Argument  about ." 

9.  Put  the  title  on  the  first  line  and  underline  it  thrice 
with  straight  lines  or  once  with  a  wave-line.     Leave  one 
ruled  line  blank  before  beginning  the  essay. 

10.  When  your  first  draft  is  longer  than  it  should  be, 
try  the   following   method  of  cutting  it  down:  (a)  Read 
the  essay  through,  striking  out,  as   you  read,  superfluous 
words  and  phrases.     At  the  same  time  mark  each  sentence 
or  group  of  sentences  1,  2,  3,  or  4,  according  to  its  impor- 
tance ;  (6)  strike  out  all  portions  indicated  by  the  number  4 ; 
(c)   if  the  essay  is  too  long,  strike  out  the  sentences  next  in 
importance ;  (d)  insert  words,  phrases,  or  sentences  to  bridge 
the  gaps. 

11.  The  manuscript  should  be  neat  in  appearance,  and,  if 
possible,  without  erasures  or  interlineations.     Do  not  leave 
the  first  draft  in  an  unfinished  state,  with  the  idea  that 
omissions  can  be  supplied  in  the  copy ;  finish  before  copy- 
ing.    Still,  it  is  better  to  make  corrections  in  the  last  copy 
than  not  to  make  them  at  all.     If  corrections  must  be  made, 
make  them  neatly.     To  strike  out  a  word,  draw  a  horizontal 
line  through  it ;  do  not  enclose  it  in  parentheses.     In  making 
interlineations,  use  the  caret. 

12.  Indent  for  a  paragraph  at  least  one  inch.     Do  not 
leave  blank  spaces  at  the  ends  of  sentences,  except  at  the 
close  of  paragraphs. 

13.  If  you  are  in  doubt  about  the  spelling  or  usage  of  a 
word,  consult  the  dictionary  at  once. 


CORRECTING    THEMES. 


435 


14.  Put  an  outline  at  the  close  of  each  of  the  longer 
essays  unless  otherwise  directed. 

15.  Write  your  number  before  your  name  on  each  sheet, 
thus  :  "  126.  John  Doe,"  and  number  the  sheets  1-1,  1-2,  etc., 
or  a-1,  a-2,  etc.,  thus :  —   » 


126.  John   Doe 
a-1 


Margins 


I  was  thinking,  young  Ladies  and  Gentlemen 


Marks  Used  in  Correcting  Themes. 

In  the  MS.  —  The  words,  clauses,  or  sentences  to  which  the 
marginal  corrections  refer  are  indicated  by  crossing  out,  by  under- 
scoring, or  by  enclosing  in  brackets  or  circles,.  A  caret  shows  the 
point  at  which  something  is  to  be  supplied.  An  inverted  caret 
marks  the  omission  of  the  apostrophe  or  of  quotation  marks. 

In  the  margin. 

Amb.  —  Ambiguous.  Capable  of  more  than  one  interpretation. 
Ant.  —  Antecedent  (i.e.  any  expression  to  which  subsequent  refer- 
ence is  made)  needs  attention.  (1)  Two  or  more  possible  antecedents : 
be  sure  that  the  antecedent  to  which  a  relative  refers  is  clear 
and  unmistakable.  (2)  No  antecedent:  guard  against  using  a 
relative  clause  that  has  no  antecedent.  (3)  Relative  and  antece- 
dent do  not  agree  :  singular  antecedents  require  singular  pronouns 
of  reference ;  relative  and  antecedent  should  agree  in  number. 
"  He  is  one  of  those  men  who  disapproves  of  every  new  idea," 
should  be  "He  is  one  of  those  men  who  disapprove"  etc. 
"  Everybody  votes  according  to  their  own  convictions,"  should  be 


436  PREPARING   THEMES. 

"  Everybody  votes  according  to  his  own  conviction."  (4)  Re- 
peat the  antecedent:  repeat  an  idea  wheii  the  relative  alone  is  not 
sufficient  for  clearness.  "  His  opponents  were  at  this  time  in- 
volved in  expensive  litigation,  which  partly  accounts  for  the 
feebleness  of  their  opposition."  The  meaning  probably  is  "  a 
circumstance  which  partly  accounts  for,"  etc. 

Awk. — Awkward.  Ungainly  mode  of  expression;  harsh  or  un- 
rhythmical sound. 

Cap.  —  Capital  for  small  letter,  or  vice  versa. 

Cl.  —  Not  clear.  (1)  Vague,  obscure,  indefinite.  (2)  Does  not  mean 
what  was  intended. 

Cnst.  —  Construction  faulty.  (1)  Wrong  construction:  examples, 
"  He  found  that  going  to  school  was  different  than  (say  from 
u-hat)  he  expected."  "  My  principal  had  forfeited  the  privilege 
to  choose  (say  of  choosing)  his  own  weapons."  (2)  Unexpected 
change  of  construction :  in  similar  parts  of  the  sentence  use  the 
same  construction.  Do  not  say  "  I  prefer  choosing  my  own 
friends  and  to  carry  out  my  own  plans,"  but  either  "  I  prefer 
choosing  my  own  friends  and  carrying  out  my  own  plans,"  or 
"  I  prefer  to  choose  my  own  friends  and  to  carry  out  my  own 
plans."  (3)  Awkward  construction:  avoid  awkward  construc- 
tions, such  as,  "  She  inquired  of  the  Superintendent  as  to  the 
probability  of  her  brother's  suspension  from  the  school "  (better, 
"  She  asked  the  Superintendent  if  her  brother  was  likely  to  be 
suspended  from  the  school").  "Their  destination  was  arrived 
at  by  them  by  daybreak  "  ("  By  daybreak  they  arrived  at  their 
destination  ").  (4)  Invoiced  clauses :  beware  of  involved  clauses, 
such  as,  "  The  editor  said  that  he  was  sure  that  the  rumor  that 
the  envoy  had  been  recalled,  was  false  "  (better,  "  The  rumor 
of  the  envoy's  recall,  the  editor  said,  was  undoubtedly  false  "). 

Coh. — Not  Coherent.  The  abbreviations  *,  ^T,  c  when  used  with 
this  sign  indicate  that  coherence  is  lacking  in  sentence,  para- 
graph, or  whole  composition  respectively. 

Con.  —  Connection  faulty.  (1)  Means  of  explicit  reference  (con- 
junctions, demonstratives,  modifications  of  sentence-structure) 
not  skilfully  managed.  (2)  Wrong  conjunction  used :  distinguish 
different  degrees  and  different  kinds  of  connection  in  such  words 


CORRECTING    THEMES.  437 

as  yet,  still,  but,  however,  and,  so,  while,  whereas,  even,  together,  with, 
since,  hence,  because,  for,  etc.  (3)  Connectives  used  where  they  can 
be  omitted :  connectives  may  sometimes  be  omitted  with  a  gain  to 
force.  Thus,  it  is  less  forcible  to  say,  "  Run  and  tell  your  father 
the  house  is  on  fire,"  than  to  say,  "  Run  1  Tell  your  father  the 
house  is  on  fire."  (4)  Transitional  phrase  or  sentence  needed : 
short  summarizing  phrases  or  sentences  are  needed,  at  times,  to 
indicate  the  direction  which  the  thought  is  next  to  take,  or  the 
manner  of  treatment  to  be  pursued.  (5)  Illogical  sequence. 

Cond.  —  Condense. 

Consult.  —  Bring  the  MS.  to  the  instructor  at  the  next  consultation 
hour. 

D.  —  See  the  dictionary.     Note  the  spelling,  etymology,  meaning, 
and  standing  of  the  word  or  words  underlined. 

E.  — Bad  English. 
Exp.  —  Expand. 

Fig.  —  Error  in  the  use  of  figurative  language.  (1)  Mixed  meta- 
phor. (2)  Allusion  obscure  :  images  of  things  that  are  familiar 
are  easier  to  understand  than  images  of  things  that  are  unfamil- 
iar. (3)  Figure  uncalled  for. 

FW.  — ''  Fine  writing."  The  attempt  to  give  a  commonplace  idea 
dignity  and  force,  or  humor,  by  the  use  of  big  words  and  pre- 
tentious phrases,  is  termed  "  fine  writing."  Thus,  "  An  individ- 
ual designated  by  the  not  uncommon  cognomen  of  « Smith '  "  is 
"fine  writing"  for  "  a  man  named  Smith." 

Gr.  —  Bad  grammar.  (1)  Concord  in  number  or  tense  not  observed. 
(2)  Wrong  use  of  Shall  and  Will. 

H.  —  Heading  at  fault.  No  heading,  poor  heading,  heading  not 
properly  underscored,  etc. 

Inv.  —  Involved  structure.     Simplify. 

Kp. — Out  of  keeping.  (1)  Tone  of  the  composition  not  consistently 
maintained  :  at  no  point  should  the  composition  vary  perceptibly 
from  the  level  of  thought  or  feeling  on  which  it  was  begun ; 
e.g.  avoid  jest  or  slang  in  a  composition  whose  prevailing  note 
is  earnestness.  (2)  In  bad  taste. 

I.e.  —  Change  of  capital  to  small  letter. 


438  PREPARING   THEMIS. 

MS. —  Manuscript  unsatisfactory.  (1)  Form  incorrect.  (2)  Not 
neat.  (3)  Writing  illegible. 

p.  —  Bad  punctuation. 

Pos. — Wrong  position.  (1)  Related  words  separated:  related 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  brought  as  close  as  possible 
to  the  elements  which  they  modify.  (2)  Important  words  in 
unemphatic  positions :  an  important  word  or  phrase  should  occupy 
an  emphatic  position,  such  as  the  beginning  or  end  of  the  sen- 
tence. (3)  Unimportant  words  in  emphatic  positions. 

pt.  —  Misuse  of  participle.  (1)  Misrelated  or  unrelated  participle  : 
the  grammatical  relation  of  the  participle  to  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence should  not  be  left  in  doubt.  "  Having  dared  to  take  up 
the  cause  of  the  abolitionists,  his  friends  would  no  longer  con- 
sort openly  with  him."  Does  "having  dared"  belong  with 
"  friends  "  or  with  "  him  "  ?  (2)  Participle  when  infinitive  or 
clause  is  preferable.  (3)  Absolute  construction  needlessly  used. 

Q.  —  Quotation  at  fault.  (1)  Incorrect  quotation.  (2)  Incorrect  use 
of  quotation  marks. 

Re.  —  Repetition  to  be  avoided.  Avoid  needless  repetitions  of  the 
same  word  or  sound. 

Rcl.  —  Relative  pronoun  at  fault.  (1)  Coordinate  for  restrictive,  rela- 
tive, or  vice  versa.  (2)  Relative  may  be  omitted :  the  restrictive 
relative,  when  the  object  of  a  verb,  may  often  be  omitted  with- 
out loss  of  clearness.  Thus,  "  I  am  the  man  you  seek  "  is  some- 
times preferable  to  "  I  am  the  man  that  you  seek." 

Sent.  —  Wrong  form  of  sentence.  (1)  Periodic  for  loose  sentence, 
or  vice  versa.  (2)  Monotonous  recurrence  of  the  same  form  of  sen- 
tence:  beware  especially  of  overuse  of  the  "and-sentence,"  such 
as  "  It  was  a  bright,  cheerful  day  and  the  birds  were  singing." 

SI.  — Slang. 

Sp.  —  Bad  spelling.  (1)  Word  misspelled.  (2)  Improper  use  or 
omission  of  the  apostrophe.  (3)  Wrong  abbreviation,  or  abbrevia- 
tion improperly  used.  (4)  Spell  in  full.  (Also  indicated  by 
drawing  a  circle  around  the  abbreviation.) 

Sub.  —  Subordination  faulty.  (1)  Ideas  of  unequal  rank  made  co- 
ordinate. Subordinate  the  expression  underscored.  (2)  Expression 
too  emphatic.  (3)  Wrong  idea  subordinated.  Recast  the  sentence. 


CORRECTING   THEMES.  439 

T.  —  Tautology.    Useless  repetition. 

Tr.  —  Transpose. 

Ts.  —  Wrong  tense. 

U.  —  Unity  violated.  The  abbreviations  s,  ^f,  cwhen  used  with 
this  sign  indicate  that  unity  is  lacking  in  the  sentence,  para- 
graph, or  whole  composition  respectively. 

Wd.  —  Wrong  use  of  a  word.  (1)  Wrong  form  of  word.  (2)  Word 
used  in  wrong  sense.  (3)  Choose  a  more  exact  or  fitting  term. 
(4)  Word  not  in  good  use. 

W.  —  Weak.  (1)  Terms  too  general:  use  particular  and  con- 
crete expressions  to  give  vigor  and  interest.  (2)  Anti-climax. 
(3)  Hackneyed  words  or  phrases:  avoid  trite  and  meaningless 
expressions. 

If —  Paragraph. 

No  If  —  Do  not  paragraph. 

§  or  <£  —  Omit.  (Do  not  enclose  .jijuSftraatheses,  but  draw  a  line 
through  the  word.) 

A  —  Something  has  been  omitted, 

V  or  ?  —  Error,  not  specified. 

Q  —  Join  the  parts  of  a  word,  incorrectly  separated. 

#  —  More  space  at  point  indicated  by  caret. 

/-/  —  Hyphen  to  be  supplied. 

At  beginning  or  end  of  the  MS.  —  One  of  the  above  marks  placed 

at  the  beginning   or  end  of   the   manuscript  warns   the  writer 

against  a  prevailing  fault.     The  general  character  of  the  manu- 
script is  indicated  by  the  following  letters :  A,  excellent ;  B,  fair ; 

C,  poor ;  D,  very  bad,  rewrite. 


APPENDIX  G. 

THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

1.  Unity,  Clearness,  and  Force.  —  Method  of  Treatment. — 
There  are  three  prime  characteristics  of  every  good  para- 
graph :  (1)  Unity,  or  oneness,  by  means  of  which  the  reader 
recognizes  that  some  one,  particular,  significant  thing  or  idea, 
and  nothing  else,  is  being  presented ;  (2)  Clearness,  or  in- 
telligibility, by  means  of  which  he  understands  what  is  said 
of  that  one  thing  or  idea ;  and  (3)  Force,  or  emphasis,  by 
means  of  which  both  the  thing  or  idea  and  what  is  said  of  it 
are  firmly  impressed  on  his  mind.     We  shall  consider  each 
of  these  three  characteristics,  first  in  its  application  to  the 
paragraph  as  a  whole,  and  secondly  in  its  application  to  the 
component  elements  of  the  paragraph ;  namely,  sentences, 
clauses,  phrases,  and  single  words.     We  shall  notice,  also, 
some  of  the  common  errors  that  hinder  the  attainment  of 
Unity,  Clearness,  and  Force  in  writing,  and  shall  state  prin- 
ciples for  guidance. 

Unity. 

2.  Unity  of  the  Paragraph  as  a  Whole.  —  In   a   good   para- 
graph we  notice  two  kinds  of  unity,  —  unity  of  idea  and 
structure,  and  unity  of  tone.     Unity  of  idea  and  structure 
has  already  been  discussed.     (See  pp.  10, 18, 32, 54.)     Unity 
of  tone  requires  that  the  paragraph  shall  at  no  point  vary 
perceptibly   from  that  level  of  thought  or  of   feeling  on 
which  the  paragraph  began.     A  commonplace  or  colloquial 
remark  in  a  paragraph  whose  prevailing  tone  is  pathetic,  a 
jest  or  a  piece  of  slang  in  a  paragraph  whose  prevailing 

440 


UNITY.  441 

note  is  spiritual,  are  often  ruinous  to  the  effect  that  would 
otherwise  be  produced ;  and  a  few  words  of  bad  English, 
or  a  badly  chosen  figure  of  speech,  may  work  irreparable 
mischief  in  a  paragraph  which  would,  but  for  that,  be  ex- 
cellent in  tone.  For  maintaining  unity  of  tone  in  a  para- 
graph, a  careful  selection  of  appropriate  details  (see  pp.  13— 
18,  35,  72-81),  and  of  appropriate  words  and  images  by 
which  to  express  them,  is  needful.  Notice  the  paragraphs 
on  pp.  50, 53, 61, 78 , 70  (last),  73  (last),  77  (middle),  90  (last), 
and  93,  190 ;  decide  in  each  case  what  is  the  purpose  and 
point  of  view ;  then  decide  whether  the  tone  is  purely  intel- 
lectual, emotional,  or  spiritual ;  and,  finally,  mark  the  words 
which  preserve  this  distinctive  tone  throughout  the  para- 
graph, and  words  which  in  tone  fall  below  the  level  on  which 
the  paragraph  begins.  Choice  of  appropriate  words  is  the 
main  consideration  in  preserving  unity  of  tone. 

Construct  and  arrange  sentences  in  a  way  to  give  unity  of 
structure ;  choose  and  arrange  words  and  images  in  a  way  to  give 
unity  of  tone.  Judicious  use  of  blunt  idiomatic  expressions 
should  not  be  mistaken  for  violation  of  unity  of  tone.  In 
the  following  selection  the  italicized  words  do  not  fall  below 
the  general  tone  of  the  paragraph. 

This  instinctive  belief,  confirmed  by  every  other  kind  of  studious 
experience,  that  all  serious  study  must  inherently  tend  toward 
isolated  specialization,  seems  to  me  the  first  difficulty  that  besets 
earnest  pupils  who  make  a  mess  of  their  English  in  the  secondary 
schools.  Clearly  enough,  a  really  intelligent  teacher  can  explain 
it  away.  The  process  may  involve  vexatiously  tedious  reiteration 
of  good  sense ;  but  such  reiteration  ought  to  do  the  business. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  unity  of  tone  is  not 
maintained :  — 

The  sight  oppressed  me  with  sorrow,  my  heart  swelled  into  my 
throat,  my  eyes  filled  with  tears,  I  couldn't  stand  it  any  longer,  and 
/  left.  [Better,  —  I  could  no  longer  endure  the  painful  scene,  and 
turned  sadly  away.] 


442          THE  BHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

He  prays  that  his  friends  grieve  not  at  his  death.  [Better,  —  will 
not  grieve.] 

My  greatest  difficulties  in  writing  were  organizing  and  classify- 
ing material,  formulating  outlines,  and  adhering  to  said  [better, 
—  the]  outlines. 

Again  last  year  he  was  elected  to  that  high  office  by  such  a 
majority  that  his  opponent  did  not  know  which  end  he  stood  on. 
[Better,  —  by  an  overwhelming  majority.'] 

The  best  side  of  the  boy's  nature  was  aroused  by  these  potent 
stimuli.  [Better,  —  influences,  or  incentives.'] 

The  odor  of  the  blossoms,  or  of  the  gum,  or  the  height  of  the 
place,  makes  me  dizzy,  [omit]  or  I  have  become  dizzy  from  something 
else.  See  also  page  15  (bottom). 

3.  Unity  of  Single  Sentences  in  a  Paragraph.  —  Each  sentence 
must  contribute  to  the  unity  of  the  paragraph ;  and  each 
must  have  a  unity  of  its  own,  in  the  number  and  relation- 
ship of  its  ideas  (pp.  56-61),  in  the  subordination  of  its  parts 
(pp.  50,  56),  and  in  its  form  as  a  whole  (pp.  50,  51).  The 
most  common  violations  of  these  three  requirements  are :  — 

(1)  putting  too  many  ideas,  or  unrelated  or  insignificant 

ideas  in  one  sentence, 

(2)  failing  to  keep  prominent  the  main  subject  or  idea  of 

a  sentence,  or  failing   to  keep  subsidiary  details 
subordinate, 

(3)  failing  to  adjust  the  form  of  the  sentence  as  a  whole 

to  the  requirements  of  the  paragraph. 
(1)  The  parts  of  each  sentence,  whatever  its  length  or  the 
number  of  its  details,  should  all  bear  a  close  relation  to  one  prin- 
cipal idea.  A  long  parenthetical  statement  should  be  omitted 
if  not  clearly  needed.  If  needed,  it  should  either  be  organ- 
ized into  a  separate  sentence,  or  be  shortened  and  closely 
knit  into  the  subordinate  texture  of  the  sentence  to  which 
it  belongs. 

The  following  sentences  violate  these  principles :  — 
The  Church  and  Parliament,  always  conservative  when  their 
own  privileges  are  threatened  (proofs  of  which  fact  may  be  found 


UNITY.  443 

in  every  chapter  of  English  History),  created  a  strong  opposition 
to  his  claims,  —  claims  which  to  them  appeared  arrogant,  —  so  he 
pretended,  for  a  time,  to  favor  each,  in  order  to  weaken  their 
hostility ;  but,  at  last,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  opposed  them 
openly.  [This  sentence  is  correct,  but  it  attempts  to  say  too  many 
things.  There  is  material  in  it  for  three  sentences.  Omit  the 
matter  in  parenthesis,  which  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  word 
always;  put  periods  after  arrogant  and  hostility,  and  revise  the 
three  sentences  thus  formed.] 

The  new  Congressman  comes  of  good  old  New  England  stock,  is 
in  favor  of  tariff  reform,  and  at  present  resides  at  Washington 
Court  House,  the  town  which  gained  an  unenviable  notoriety  last 
year  on  account  of  the  mob  attack  on  the  jail.  [Omit  the  last 
eighteen  words ;  they  are  of  no  significance  in  giving  an  idea  of 
the  new  Congressman.  Better,  —  The  new  Congressman  is  at 
present  a  resident  of  Washington  Court  House.  He  comes  of 
good  old  New  England  stock  (insert  in  this  sentence  another  item 
or  two,  relative  to  his  ancestry,  or  stock  characteristics).  He  is  in 
favor  of  tariff  reform  (add  to  this  one  or  two  related  particulars, 
in  order  to  justify  separate  sentence-statement).] 

The  University  was  organized  by  Act  of  Legislature  in  1837, 
and  is  a  wonderful  testimony  to  the  efficiency  of  government  by 
the  people  and  for  the  people.  [Better,  —  The  University  was 
organized  by  Act  of  Legislature  in  1837.  Its  rapid  growth  is  a 
wonderful  testimony,  etc.] 

(2)  Subordinate  details  should  be  kept  subordinate  in  form  of 
statement.  Appended  phrases  and  clauses  should  be  re- 
duced to  inconspicuous  forms  or  transferred  to  inconspicuous 
positions.  A  subordinate  clause  within  a  subordinate  clause 
should  not  be  clothed  in  the  same  form  of  words  as  clauses 
of  higher  rank.  Beware  of  involved  clauses. 

The  following  sentences  disregard  these  principles :  — 

This  revolt,  conducted  by  Senara  against  the  Empire  of  Brazil, 
resulted  in  his  being  declared  President  of  the  Brazilian  Republic. 
[The  important  fact  is  that  a  Republic  was  established.  Better, 
—  This  revolt,  conducted  by  Senara  against  the  Empire  of  Brazil, 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Brazilian  Republic,  of  which 
Senara  was  declared  President.] 


444  THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

In  case  the  President  should  die  while  in  office,  a  near  election 
might  be  an  advantage ;  for  a  man  living  in  a  "  doubtful  "  state 
like  New  York  is  frequently  chosen  Vice  President,  not  because  he 
is  a  statesman,  and  should  the  Presidency  devolve  on  him,  he  would 
prove  incompetent,  and  hence  an  early  opportunity  to  select  another 
would  be  desirable.  [Better,  —  In  case  the  President  should  die 
while  in  office,  a  near  election  might  be  an  advantage.  For  the 
Vice  President,  chosen,  as  he  frequently  is,  not  because  he  is  a 
statesman,  but  solely  because  he  lives  in  a  "  doubtful "  state  like 
New  York,  might  prove  to  be  an  incompetent  President.  In  this 
event,  an  early  opportunity  to  select  another  would  be  desirable.] 

At  present,  in  the  House  of  Refuge,  religious  exercises  are  held 
without  regard  to  the  classification  of  the  inmates  with  regard  to 
the  sect  of  which  they  are  adherents.  [Better,  —  At  present,  in 
the  House  of  Refuge,  religious  exercises  are  held  without  regard 
to  the  sectarian  preferences  of  the  inmates.] 

You  will  not  find  a  more  courageous  President,  among  those  who 
have  held  the  office  of  late  years,  at  least.  [Better,  —  Among  all  of 
our  presidents,  at  least  among  those  who  have  held  the  office  of 
late,  you  will  not  find  a  better  example  of  courage.] 

Among  the  guests  is  one  whose  name  is  honored  by  all  whose  lim 
have  been  made  better  by  his  writings  and  whose  presence  affords  us 
the  greatest  pleasure.  [Better,  —  Among  the  guests  is  one  whose 
name  is  honored  wherever  lives  have  been  made  better  by  his  writ- 
ings. His  presence  affords  us  the  greatest  pleasure.] 

In  the  second  panel  we  are  shown  at  the  right  a  small  palm-tree 
by  whose  side  is  another  from  behind  which  three  Indians  are 
timidly  peeping  at  Columbus  and  his  followers  who  have  just 
landed.  [Better,  — In  this  panel  we  are  shown  the  landing  of 
Columbus  and  his  followers.  At  the  right  are  two  palm-trees; 
from  behind  one  of  them  three  Indians  are  timidly  peeping.] 

(3)  Change  a  loose  to  a  periodic  sentence  (see  p.  25),  or  vice 
versa,  when  the  change  will  result  in  a  closer  continuation  of 
the  thought  of  the  preceding  sentence.  (Even  when  clearness 
is  attained  by  a  certain  ordering  of  parts,  further  rearrange- 
ment will  often  better  the  unity  both  of  the  sentence  and 
of  the  paragraph.) 


CLEARNESS.  445 

Serfs  were  compelled  to  pay  for  their  land  and  shelter.  They 
gave  a  percentage  of  all  they  raised  and  of  all  the  game  they  might 
capture,  to  their  lord,  as  part  payment.  [Better,  —  As  part  pay- 
ment they  gave  to  their  lord  a  percentage  both  of  all  they  raised 
and  of  all  the  game  they  might  capture.] 

Clearness. 

4.  Perspicuity,  or  Clearness  of  the  Paragraph  as  a  Whole.  — 
To  secure  perspicuity,  observe  the  laws  of  sequence  and  grouping, 
see  that  each  thought  is  stated  and  illustrated  with  sufficient  ful- 
ness, and  attend  to  the  connection  of  related  sentences.     Each 
sentence  in  a  paragraph  may  be  clear  in  meaning,  and  yet 
the  paragraph,  as  a  whole,  may  lack  clearness.     This  is  true 
of  the  paragraph  on  page  199,  and  of  that  at  the  top  of  page 
200.     Clearness  of  the  paragraph,  as  a  whole,  is  more  con- 
veniently  and  accurately  called  Perspicuity.     Perspicuity 
depends   upon  paragraph-structure  (pp.  34-72),   upon  the 
order  (pp.  22-27)  and  connection  (pp.  54-56)  of  sentences, 
and  especially  upon  the  sufficient  use  of  repetition  (p.  53), 
definition  (p.  37),  explanation,  illustration,  and  details  (pp. 
39-42).     Proportion  (18),  sequence  and  grouping  (p.  102), 
and  careful  planning  (pp.  137-150)  must  be  attended  to  by 
the  writer  who  would  be  perspicuous  in  style. 

5.  Clearness  of  Single  Sentences  in  a  Paragraph. — As  in  the 
paragraph,  so  in  the  sentence,  clearness  is  a  problem  of  se- 
quence, grouping,  and  placing  of  parts,  a  problem  of  point- 
ing out  relations  and  connections  between  parts,  of  using  a 
sufficient  number  of  words  and  of  using  them  accurately. 
When  a  qualifying  word,  phrase,  or  clause  is  not  so  placed 
as  to  indicate,  with    certainty,   what    word   or   words   it 
qualifies,  we  have  (1)  the  squinting  construction,  or  (2)  am- 
biguity resulting  from  the  separation  of  words  that  ought  to 
be  close  together.     When  reference  words  do  not  point  out 
with  unerring  accuracy  the  words  to  which  they  refer,  (3) 
the  antecedent  is  often  hard  to  detect,  or  when  found  is  seen 


446          THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

to  be  incommensurate  with  the  reference  word.  (4)  The 
words  of  reference  chosen  may  be  too  vague  and  indefinite 
to  suggest  the  antecedent,  and  (5)  confusion  of  ideas  may 
result  from  the  fact  that  no  antecedent  is  expressed  to  which 
the  words  of  reference  may  refer.  When  words  are  not  em- 
ployed in  sufficient  numbers,  a  participle  may  be  left  with- 
out a  word  in  the  sentence  to  which  it  may  attach  itself,  in 
which  event  we  may  have  (6)  a  case  of  unrelated  or  of  mis- 
related  participle.  The  participle  carries  with  it  several  im- 
plications of  meaning,  hence  it  is  sometimes  necessary  (7)  to 
expand  a  participle  into  a  clause  in  order  to  indicate  .the  pre- 
cise implication  of  meaning  intended.  (8)  Words'  have  to  be 
inserted  or  repeated  in  form  or  substance  when  their  omis- 
sion would  cause  ambiguity.  (9)  An  infinitive  of  purpose, 
when  used  in  connection  with  an  infinitive  in  another  func- 
tion, requires  the  insertion  of  additional  distinguishing 
words.  When  words  are  not  used  accurately  in  pointing  out 
relations  between  parts  of  a  sentence,  lack  of  clearness  is  sure 
to  result.  Inaccuracies  resulting  in  obscurity  or  ambiguity 
are  most  frequent  (10)  in  the  use  of  connectives  and  (11)  rel- 
ative pronouns,  (12)  in  the  use  of  number  and  tense  and  (13) 
in  the  use  of  witt  and  shall.  We  shall  now  consider  in  order 
these  thirteen  violations  of  clearness. 

(1)  Squinting  Const  i-m-finn.  When  a  phrase  or  clause  is 
so  placed  that  it  may  equally  well  be  understood  to  refer  to 
what  precedes  it  and  to  what  follows  it,  it  is  said  fco  squint. 
Guard  against  the  squinting  construction.  Place  phrases  and 
clauses  in  unambiguous  positions. 

Consider  the  following  examples  :  — 

He  thought  his  choice  of  elective  studies,  at  all  events,  as  good  as 
the  average.  [Insert  (1)  was  after  studies,  or  (2)  at  all  events  after 
goody  or  (3)  after  choice,  or  (4)  before  He,  —  according  to  the 
meaning.] 

A  Senate  of  rich  men  holding  their  seats  by  bribing  legislatures, 
to  tell  the  truth,  will  not  longer  be  tolerated.  [Better,  —  (1)  will 


CLEARNESS.  447 

not   (to  speak  plainly)  be  tolerated  any  longer ;   or    (2)   holding 
their  seats  (if  the  truth  were  known)  by  bribing,  etc.] 

A  literary  education  in  the  minds  of  some  people  seems  to  be  un- 
necessary. [Place  the  italicized  words  first.] 

(2)   Bring  related  words  as  close  together  as  possible. 

Avoid  the  splitting  of  particles,  that  construction  by  which 
the  emphasis  is  suspended  upon  a  preposition  and  is  de- 
layed there  until  another  preposition,  referring  to  the  same 
word,  is  passed. 

Distinguish  between  only  and  alone.  Clearness  is  often 
promoted  by  placing  a  single-word  adverb  (as  only)  imme- 
diately before  the  word  or  expression  that  it  modifies. 

Do  not  separate  the  infinitive  from  its  sign  to. 

When  possible,  place  the  preposition  immediately  before 
the  word  to  which  it  refers.  The  prepositions  that  can  best 
stand  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  are  to,  for,  of,  by,  and  these 
will  not  bear  a  separation  of  more  than  two  or  three  words 
from  their  idea-word,  even  in  idiomatic  expressions. 

Be  careful  to  place  not  only  —  but  also,  either  —  or,  both  — 
and,  immediately  before  the  corresponding  words  to  which 
they  refer. 

The  following  sentences  disregard  these  principles :  — 

He  looked  l>ack  upon  those  years  spent  in  wandering  about  Eu- 
rope with  regret.  [Better,  —  He  looked  back  with  regret  upon,  etc.] 

He  speaks  on  too  deep  topics  to  be  readily  understood  by  the 
ordinary  man.  [Better,  —  On  topics  too  deep  to  be  readily  under- 
stood, etc.] 

It  is  not  impossible  that  future  ages  may  develop  a  means  of 
expressing  thoughts  and  feelings  to  us  unknown.  [Better, — 
Future  ages  may  express  their  thoughts  and  feelings  by  some 
means  to  us  unknown.] 

During  my  junior  year  there  was  some  work  in  composition  in 
connection  with  the  work  in  English  that  continued  through  the 
whole  year.  [Better,  —  During  my  junior  year,  in  connection 
with  the  work  in  English,  there  was  some  work  in  composition 
that  continued,  etc.] 


448          THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Red  Cap  would  not  shake  hands  with  or  even  allow  any  one  to 
touch  him  that  he  did  not  like.  [Better,  —  Red  Cap  would  not 
shake  hands  with  any  one  that  he  did  not  like,  or  even  allow  such 
a  person  to  touch  him.] 

He  derives  his  power  from,  and  should  always  hold  himself  re- 
sponsible to,  the  people.  [Better,  —  He  derives  his  power  from  the 
people,  and  should  always  hold  himself  responsible  to  them.  (Or, 
to  the  people.)"] 

He  only  thought  he  could  stay  a  few  days.  [Better,  —  He  thought 
he  could  stay  only  a  few  days.] 

He  only  [alone~]  was  able  to  work  the  hard  problems. 

To  so  act  is  foolish  1     [Better,  —  So  to  act,  or  To  act  so.] 

He  put  himself  on  the  defensive,  not  against  the  whole  world, 
but  against  those  whom  he  had  found  it  necessary  to  be  on  the 
defensive  towards.  [Better,  —  towards  whom.'] 

They  not  only  intend  to  pass  another  low-tariff  bill,  but  also  a 
free-silver  bill.  [Better,  —  They  intend  to  pass  not  only  another 
low-tariff  bill,  but  also  a  free-silver  bill.] 

(3)  Lack  of  precision  in  the  antecc<^nt.  Be  sure  that  the 
antecedent  to  which  a  relative  refers  is  clear  and  unmistakable. 
Kepeat  an  idea  when  the  relative  alone  is  not  sufficient  for 
clearness.  Guard  against  using  a  relative  clause  that  has 
no  antecedent. 

Singular  antecedents  require  singular  pronouns  of  reference ; 
relative  and  antecedent  should  agree  in  number.  Words  of  ref- 
erence should  denote  accurately  the  number  and  character 
of  the  antecedent. 

A  brother  of  General  Sherman,  who  was  sitting  near  by,  corrected 
the  statement.  [Better,  —  General  Sherman's  brother,  who,  etc.,  or, 
.1  Brother  of  General  Sherman,  while  the  General  himself  was  sitting 
near  by,  etc.  —  according  to  the  meaning  intended.] 

Everybody  found  it  best  for  their  \his~\  health  to  shun  the  place. 

The  injured  man  with  the  whole  circle  of  his  relations  and 
friends  rose  in  their  \his~]  fury  to  wreak  vengeance  on  the  offender. 

He  whispered  that  the  enemy  were  all  about  us,  which  would 
have  terrified  me  under  other  circumstances.  [For  which  substi- 
tute an  announcement  that,  or  a  method  of  communication  that,  —  ac- 
cording to  the  meaning.] 


CLEARNESS.  449 

(4)  The  following  sentences  contain  ambiguous  words  of 
reference. 

Topography  in  a  broader  sense  may  be  represented  approxi- 
mately by  hatchings  or  by  washes  of  color.  Very  beautiful  effects 
may  be  produced  in  this  way.  [Better,  —  by  these  methods.'] 

At  that  time  Doctor  and  Master  were  synonymous,  but  when  an 
initiatory  stage  of  discipline  was  prescribed,  each  term  became 
significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  was  called  a  step  or  degree;  this 
was  instituted  by  Gregory  IX.  [Better,  —  this  change,  or  this  dis- 
tinction."] 

Composition  has  always  been  hard  for  me,  and  I  must  confess 
that  the  encyclopaedia  has  been  ito  that  connection  my  closest  friend. 
[Better,  —  I  must  confess  that  in  the  preparation  of  my  essays  the 
encyclopaedia,  etc.] 

There  has  been  a  sinall-pox  scare,  but  it  has  been  stamped  out 
entirely.  At  one  time  it  looked  as  if  it  would  spread  over  the  entire 
city,  but  it  is  over  now.  [Substitute  for  the  first  it,  "  the  disease  " ; 
for  it  looked  as  if  it,  "  we  thought  the  disease  "  ;  for  the  last  it,  "  the 
scare."  See  page  54.] 

(5)  Confusion  of  ideas   is  shown  in   the   following  sen- 
tences :  — 

A  seven-year  term  would  cause  the  President  to  make  his  admin- 
istration the  best  of  those  who  had  held  the  office.  [Better, —  A 
seven-year  term  would  enable  the  President  to  make  his  adminis- 
tration better  than  any  former  administration.] 

Where  can  you  find  a  more  enthusiastic  crowd  than  a  body  of 
college  students  ?  [Better, —  Where  can  you  find  greater  enthu- 
siasm than  in  a  crowd  of  college  students  ?] 

(6)  Misrelated     and    unrelated   participle.       A    participle 
usually  requires  that  a  word  be  expressed  with  which  it  may 
agree.     Supply  the  word  when  omission  would   cause  am- 
biguity. 

Having  proved  compulsory  education  necessary,  it  remains  [add, 
— for  us]  to  prove  it  beneficial  and  expedient. 

Accustomed  from  childhood  to  hearing  incorrect  speech,  system- 
atic drill  is  needed  in  the  schools.  [Accustomed  from  childhood 


450  THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

to  hearing  incorrect  speech,  pupils  need  systematic  drill  in  the  use 
of  good  English.] 

(7)  The  use  of  a  clause  instead  of  a  participle.     Supplant 
a  participle  by  a  clause  when  the  participle  is  ambiguous. 

Reduced  to  his  last  dollar,  he  felt  that  he  was  ready  for  any 
emergency.  [Supply  before  reduced,  When  he  was.  If  he  were, 
Whenever  he  was,  Since  he  was,  Though  he  was,  Because  he  was, 
or  After  he  was,  according  to  the  meaning  intended.] 

The  skeletons  in  the  vault,  exposed  to  the  air,  turned  suddenly 
to  dust.  [Better,  —  when  they  were  exposed,  or  if  they  were  exposed.] 

(8)  Repeat  a  word  when  its  omission  would  cause  ambiguity. 
Republics  are  not  desirable  [insert  if,  because,  since,  whenever,  or 

wherever]  unaccompanied  by  intelligence. 

He  was  generous  to  all  who  had  aided  him  to  acquire  wealth, 
and  [insert  to]  his  business  partner  especially. 

When  he  came  to  his  majority,  after  a  long  struggle  with  poverty 
and  hardship,  and  [substitute  when]  more  prosperous  days  began 
for  him,  and  [insert  when]  he  found  himself  influential,  he  repaid 
all  those  who  had  helped  him. 

He  said  that  he  meant  no  offence  and  [repeat  that  he]  intended 
to  repair  the  mischief. 

He  reported  that  there  were  two  applicants  for  the  degree  of 
Master  in  Pharmacy,  [repeat  a  degree]  for  which  the  University 
had  not  yet  provided. 

For  many  years  we  have  been  troubled  with  disputes  about  the 
various  fisheries,  [repeat  disputes]  which  might  be  in  large  measure 
done  away  with  by  the  appointment  of  a  commission. 

They  could  do  nothing  further  until  the  war  closed  and  cooler 
counsels  prevailed.  [Repeat  until  before  cooler,  or  substitute  so  for 
and,  according  to  the  meaning  intended.] 

(9)  Make  it  plain  whether  an  infinitive  is  coordinate  with  a 
preceding  infinitive  or  is  dependent.     Distinguish  a  subjective, 
an  objective,  or  a  complementary  infinitive  from  an  infinitive 
of  purpose. 

He  loved  to  give  to  the  poor,  to  show  them  that  he  was  their 
friend.  [The  two  offices  indicated :  He  loved  to  give  to  the  poor  in 


CLEARNESS.  451 

order  to  show  them  that  he  was  their  friend ;  or  the  meaning  may 
be,  He  loved  to  give  to  the  poor,  and,  in  other  ways,  to  show  them 
that  he  was  their  friend.] 

It  is  not  every  one  who  knows  just  how  much  tension  a  brush 
needs  [insert  in  order]  to  secure  good  contact. 

(10)  Faulty  use  of  connectives. 

Distinguish  different  degrees  and  different  kinds  of  con- 
nection in  such  words  as  and,  so,  while,  whereas,  even,  together, 
with,  since,  hence,  because,  for,  etc. 

Do  not  overwork  the  words  and,  of,  etc. 

And  cannot  be  used  with  who  or  ichich  unless  a  correspond- 
ing who  or  which  has  been  used  in  the  same  sentence,  or  has 
been  clearly  implied. 

Introduce  by  similar  words,  clauses,  or  phrases  which  per- 
form similar  functions. 

In  the  same  sentence  do  not  use  the  word  but  in  two 
functions.  Distinguish  between  the  larger  and  smaller  con- 
trasts in  a  sentence  by  using  different  conjunctions. 

The  Church  and  Parliament  created  a  strong  opposition  to  his 
claims ;  and  [better,  —  so]  he  pretended,  for  a  time,  to  favor  each, 
in  order  to  weaken  their  hostility.  But  at  last  he  threw  off  the 
mask,  etc. 

In  Germany  and  England  the  military  expenditure  goes  on  as 
before,  and  [better,  —  while]  in  Italy  the  cost  of  the  army  has 
bankrupted  the  country. 

The  snow  had  been  falling  for  several  days,  and  was  now  nearly 
three  feet  deep  ;  but  [better,  —  nevertheless]  Mr.  Smith  considered 
it  necessary  to  go  to  the  Zoological  Laboratory. 

Landor  lacks  the  power  of  attraction  which  we  find  in  writers  of 
great  genius;  and  [omit  and]  though  a  classic  in  the  best  sense,  he 
will  never  be  widely  read. 

The  prospects  of  the  team,  against  Harvard,  are  not  flattering, 
and  [add  even]  against  the  smaller  eastern  colleges  we  cannot 
hope  for  much. 

Austria  and  Prussia  and  [better,  — together  wth~\  the  whole  body 
of  the  German  states,  fell  upon  this  feeble  kingdom. 


452  THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Hawthorne,  the  author  of  "  Twice  Told  Tales,"  and  who  was  a 
contemporary  of  Irving,  speaks  of  Irving's  humor.  [Omit  and.'] 

His  was  a  character  of  sterling  integrity  and  which  deserves  to  be 
imitated.  [Better,  —  His  was  a  character  of  sterling  integrity  and 
worthy  of  imitation.]  See  §  48. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  make  a  careful  examination  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  exact  form  of  the  ground  and  to  construct  a 
map  that  can  be  followed.  [Better,  —  in  order  to  ascertain,  etc.,  and 
in  order  to  construct.] 

They  wanted  to  make  the  weekly  meeting  not  so  much  a  social 
force,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  means  of  cultivating  oratory. 
[Better,  —  not  so  much  a  social  force  as  a  means,  etc.] 

His  manners  were  not  acquired,  but  natural,  but  [better,  —  yet] 
he  never  felt  awkward  in  society. 

(11)  Relative  Pronoun  at  Fault.  The  relative  pronoun 
that  is  restrictive,  and  introduces  a  clause  that  closely 
defines,  limits,  or  qualifies  the  antecedent.  A  f/tort-clause 
affects  the  antecedent  as  an  adjective  would  affect  the 
antecedent.  \V7io  and  which  are  coordinating  relatives,  and 
introduce,  not  a  modifying  thought,  but  an  additional 
thought  of  equal  or  greater  importance.  Who  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  conjunction  plus  a  personal  pronoun,  and  may  be 
translated  by  the  words  and  hr,  <n«l  //"//,  though  he,  though 
they,  for  he,  since  they,  etc.,  which  words  may  often  be  used, 
with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of  //7<o.  Which  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  conjunction  plus  the  word  it,  thin,  these,  those,  and 
may  be  translated  by  the  words  and  this,  and  it,  and  these, 
u  fin-t  that,  a  circumstance  that,  etc.,  which  words  may  often 
be  used,  with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of  which.  Who 
and  which  are  sometimes  used  restrictively,  without  loss 
of  clearness,  instead  of  the  strictly  correct  that  (1)  when 
the  use  of  that  would  make  a  harsh  combination,  (2)  when 
the  word  that  has  already  been  used  in  another  function 
in  the  same  sentence,  and  (3)  when  the  use  of  that  would 
throw  a  preposition  to  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

The  aid  of  punctuation  may  be  called  in  to  distinguish 


CLEARNESS.  453 

restrictive  from  coord  inative  ivho  or  which.  Since  a  comma 
is  usually  inserted  before  a  coordinate  relative,  the  omission 
of  punctuation  before  who  or  which  will  give  to  the  clause 
a  restrictive  force. 

He  asked  me  who  [whom  is  correct]  I  expected. 

Whom  [who  is  correct]  do  you  think  would  wear  such  a 
thing  ? 

Nothing  which  [better,  —  that]  could  add  to  their  comfort  was 
forgotten. 

He  gave  up  his  law  practice  that  [better,  —  which]  he  had  built 
up  only  after  years  of  hard  work. 

The  society  has  twenty  members  that  [or  who~\  intend  to  make 
this  their  life-work.  (Who  would  imply  a  total  membership  of 
but  twenty.  That  implies  a  larger  membership.) 

There  is  a  saloon  next  door  that  [or  which~]  is  a  nuisance.  (That 
implies  that  the  saloon  is  a  nuisance.  Which  implies  that  its 
being  next  door  is  a  nuisance.) 

That  man  was  the  first  that  saw  [better,  —  to  see]  what  was 
needed. 

This  is  the  town  that  you  mentioned.  [Better,  —  This  is  the 
town  you  mentioned.] 

(12)  Lack  of  concord  in  number  or  tense. 

In  dependent  clauses  and  infinitives  reckon  the  tense  rela- 
tively to  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb. 

According  to  the  usage  of  most  good  writers,  general 
truths  require  the  present  tense,  irrespective  of  the  tense  of 
the  principal  verb. 

Consistency  in  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  of  a  sentence 
should  be  maintained  throughout. 

The  verb  should  agree  with  its  subject  in  number. 

No  one  knew  his  age,  but  it  would  not  have  been  difficult  to  have 
guessed  it.  [Corrected  :  to  guess  it.] 

He  said  that  honesty  was  [better,  —  is]  the  best  policy. 

As  civilization  advanced,  they  began  to  feel  that  the  sweetest 
thing  man  possessed  [better,  — possesses]  is  liberty. 

He  had  never  put  aside  the  old  and  narrow  idea  that  higher 
education  was  [better,  —  is]  for  men  alone. 


454          THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Sometimes  we  have  been  attracted  by  the  melodies  that  have 
floated  towards  us,  and  drew  near  to  discover  the  source.  [Better, 
—  have  drawn  near.] 

He  came  to  the  hill,  and,  watching  his  chance,  slyly  creeps  near 
the  game;  then  he  raised  his  gun.  [Either,  came, crept,  raised;  or, 
comes,  creeps,  raise*.] 

Each  of  these  men  were  great  financiers.  [Doth  were,  etc. ;  or, 
Each  was  a  great  financier.] 

There  are  [is]  one  of  these  rooms  on  each  corner. 

The  beautiful  location  of  the  school,  together  with  its  many  his- 
torical associations,  make  [should  be  makes']  it  a  delightful  place 
to  visit. 

Thus,  through  his  avarice,  his  honor  as  well  as  his  property  and 
business  enterprises  were  [should  be  was~\  gone. 

The  number  of  coeducational  colleges  have  [should  be  has]  in- 
creased. 

(13)   Will,  Shall,  Would,  Should. 

(a)  In  the  simple  future,  shall  is  used  in  the  first  person, 
and  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons ;  thus,  /,  or  we,  shall 
enjoy  reading  the  book,  and  You,  he,  or  they  icill  enjoy  reading 
the  book. 

(b)  In  sentences  expressing  determination,  will  is  used  in 
the  first  person,  and  shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons ; 
thus,  If  or  we,  will  obey,  and  TOM,  he,  or  they  shall  obey. 

(c)  IB  questions,  the  same  distinction  between  shall  and 
will  as  expressing  simple  futurity  or  determination  is  seen  in 
the  following :  Shall  7,  or  we  f   (simple  future,  or  equiva- 
lent to  Do  you  icish  me   or   us  tot)-,    Will  If   (ironical); 
Shall  you  subscribe  ?  (mere  information  desired)  ;    Will  you 
subscribe  ?  (I  want  you  to)  ;  Shall  he  or  they  ?  (Do  you  wish 
him  or  them  to  ?)  ;      Will  he  or  they  ?     (mere  information 
desired). 

(d)  In  secondary  clauses  the  reporter  uses   will,  if  the 
speaker  used  or  would  have  used  will;  shall  if  the  speaker 
used  or  would  have  used  shall.     Thus  :  Speaker,  —  I  shall 
enjoy  reading  the  book  ;  Reporter,  —  He  says  he  shall  enjoy 


FORCE.  455 

reading  the  book;  Speaker,  —  /  will  not  allow  it;  Keporter, 
— He  says  he  will  not  allow  it ;  Speaker,  —  You  (or  they)  shall 
seek  in  vain  for  it;  Keporter,  —  He  says  you  (or  they)  shall 
seek,  etc. 

(e)  Should  corresponds  to  shall)  and  would  to  will,  follow- 
ing corresponding  rules.  Thus,  in  reporting  the  sentences 
just  given,  the  correct  form  would  be,  He  said  he  should  en- 
joy reading  the  book.  He  said  he  would  not  allow  it,  He 
said  you  (or  they)  should  seek  in  vain  for  it. 

(/)  In  conditional  clauses  exceptional  care  is  needed, 
though  the  same  distinctions  are  maintained. 

He  tells  me  that  he  will  be  twenty-one  years  old  next  month. 
[No  determination.  Will  should  be  shall.'] 

We  would  be  pleased  to  have  you  call.  [Should  is  correct. 
Would,  implying  determination  to  be  pleased,  is  impolite  as  well 
as  incorrect.] 

If  he  should  come  to-morrow,  would  you  be  surprised  ?  [Should 
is  correct.] 

What  would  we  do  with  Samoa  if  we  would  succeed  in  annexing 
it?  [Use  should  in  both  cases.] 

Force. 

6.  Gauge  force  of  expression  by  force  of  thought.  Avoid 
bombast  and  fine  writing.  Depend  for  force  mainly  upon 
paragraph  structure,  order  and  brevity  of  sentences,  and 
condensation.  Avoid  monotony  by  mingling  sentences  of 
various  lengths  and  of  various  kinds. 

Force  of  the  Paragraph  as  a  Whole.  —  Each  paragraph  car- 
ries with  it  a  certain  weight  and  value  for  the  reader.  This 
weight  and  value  is  due  primarily  to  the  character  of  the 
thought  and  emotion  with  which  the  paragraph  is  freighted ; 
but,  since  thought  and  emotion  gain  or  lose  according  to  the 
way  in  which  they  are  presented,  the  writer  must  take  into 
account  style  as  an  element  of  force.  The  style  must 
correspond  to  the  character  of  the  thought  and  emotion. 


456  THE  RHETORIC   OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

Some  thoughts  and  emotions  are  by  nature  less  forcible 
than  others ;  the  attempt  to  overcharge  with  force  a  weak 
or  commonplace  thought  leads  to  bombast.  A  subject 
not  in  itself  picturesque  or  capable  of  exciting  emotion 
will  not  be  made  so  by  presenting  it  in  highly  figurative 
or  impassioned  diction.  The  character  of  the  thought  as 
pathetic,  humorous,  witty,  ironical,  or  picturesque,  will 
determine  the  language  to  be  used  in  expressing  it.  Some 
writers  mistake  effect  for  force,  and  in  striving  after  effect 
employ  big  words  and  high-sounding  phrases,  or  are  guilty 
of  overniceness  in  expression  ("  fine  writing  "),  forgetting 
that  plain  statement  is  nearly  always  the  most  forcible.  In 
general,  whatever  contributes  to  Unity  and  Clearness  con- 
tributes to  Force,  but  a  paragraph  already  unified  and  clear 
may  sometimes  be  improved  in  respect  of  Force :  — 

(1)  by  a  change  of  order  in  the  sentences  (see  pp.  24-27), 

(2)  by  the  addition  of  particulars  and  applications  (see 

pp.  35,  44), 

(3)  by  parallel  construction  and  repetition  (see  pp.  51-54), 

(4)  by  omission  of  connectives  (see  p.  54),  and 

(5)  by  condensing  and  shortening  sentences  (see  p.  105, 

bottom). 

A  common  violation  of  the  principle  of  Force  is  overuse 
of  one  kind  of  sentence.  The  student  should  guard  against 
this  fault  by  familiarizing  himself  with  the  different  kinds, 
and  by  learning  the  advantage  of  each.  Sentences  are  some- 
times classified  as  short  sentences  and  long  sentences,  terms 
which  do  not  need  to  be  defined ;  and  sometimes  as  loose, 
periodic,  and  balanced.  Each  has  its  peculiar  uses.  Short 
sentences  arrest  the  attention  more  sharply  than  long  sen- 
tences; hence  they  may  be  used  for  marking  transitions, 
for  summarizing,  and  for  announcing  ideas  that  are  to  be 
developed  in  succeeding  sentences.  Short  sentences  may 
also  be  used  to  give  quickness  of  movement  and  abrupt 
emphasis.  (See  the  selections  on  pp.  110,  121  (last),  126 


FORCE.  457 

(middle),  and  234.  Notice  the  different  use  which  is  made 
of  the  short  sentence  in  each  selection.)  Long  sentences 
are  useful  to  exhibit  the  relation  of  a  principal  idea  to 
several  subordinate  ideas  within  a  single  group,  or  to  show 
connectedly  the  development  of  an  idea  in  its  details. 
Long  sentences  are  often  necessary  to  secure  effects  of 
rhythm,  antithesis,  and  climax.  Employed  in  considerable 
numbers,  they  often  give  an  impression  of  dignity  and 
grace.  (See  the  selections  on  pp.  68,  204  (d),  235  (c),  240  (e) ; 
and  notice  the  use  which  is  made  of  the  long  sentence  in 
each  selection.) 

According  to  the  second  classification,  sentences  are 
loose,  periodic,  or  balanced.  A  loose  sentence  is  one  in 
which  the  sense  is  fairly  complete  at  one  or  more  points 
before  the  end.  The  following  is  an  example :  — 

He  expresses  what  all  feel,  but  all  cannot  say;  (1)  and  his  say- 
ings pass  into  proverbs  among  his  people,  (2)  and  his  phrases 
become  household  words  and  idioms  of  their  daily  speech,  (3)  which 
is  tessellated  with  the  rich  fragments  of  his  language,  (4)  as  we  see 
in  foreign  lands  the  marbles  of  Roman  grandeur  worked  into  the 
walls  and  pavements  of  modern  palaces. 

If  interrupted  at  any  one  of  the  points  indicated  by  num- 
bers, this  sentence  would  still  be  fairly  complete  in  sense. 
Loose  sentences  resemble  in  structure  those  which  we  use 
in  conversation ;  hence  they  give  an  impression  of  ease  and 
naturalness.  (See  the  selections  on  pp.  110  (last),  113,  151 
(last),  and  239  (d).) 

A  periodic  sentence  is  one  which  seems  incomplete  when" 
interrupted  at  any  point  before  the  close.  Consider  the 
structure  of  the  following  sentence :  — 

A  language  in  the  condition  in  which  ours  is  at  present,  when 
thousands  of  eyes  are  jealously  watching  its  integrity,  and  a, 
thousand  pens  are  ready  to  be  drawn,  and  dyed  deep  in  ink,  to 
challenge  and  oppose  the  introduction  into  it  of  any  corrupt  form, 


458          THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

of  any  new  and  uncalled-for  element,  can,  of  course,  undergo  only 
the  slowest  and  the  least  essential  alteration. 

The  meaning  of  this  sentence  is  suspended  until  the  very 
end.  Interrupted  at  any  point  before  the  end,  it  is  gram- 
matically incomplete.  Periodic  sentences  are  used  to  main- 
tain interest  and  to  give  to  style  an  impression  of  dignity 
and  completeness.  (See  the  selections  on  pp.  163  (last),  1 7  ^ 
(middle),  194  (6),  222  (6)). 

A  balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which  different  parts  are 
made  similar  in  form  in  order  to  bring  out  parallelism  in 
meaning.  (See  pp.  51, 53.)  The  following  is  an  example :  — 

On  the  third  of  November,  1640,  a  day  to  be  long  remembered, 
met  that  great  Parliament,  destined  to  every  extreme  of  fortune, 
to  empire  and  to  servitude,  to  glory  and  to  contempt;  at  one  time 
the  sovereign  of  its  sovereign,  at  another  time  the  servant  of  its 
servants. 

Sentences  of  this  type  are  used  to  give  force  and  point  to 
contrasted  ideas.  In  form  they  are  more  impressive  than 
other  kinds  of  sentences,  and  consequently  are  more  liable 
to  abuse.  A  safe  rule  is  to  use  the  balanced  sentence  only 
when  it  is  demanded  by  a  parallelism  in  the  thought. 

To  use  in  successive  paragraphs  one  length  or  one  type 
of  sentences  results  in  feebleness  and  monotony  of  style. 
Overuse  of  the  short  sentence  leads  to  scrappiness ;  of  the 
long  sentence,  to  diffuseness  or  obscurity.  Loose  sentences 
are  apt  to  be  slovenly.  Periodic  sentences,  especially  if 
long,  require  sustained  attention  and  soon  weary.  A  para- 
graph composed  solely  of  balanced  sentences  is  almost 
unreadable.  The  principle  of  Force  requires  a  judicious 
mingling  of  these  various  kinds.  If  the  student  inclines  to 
write  short  sentences,  let  him  now  and  then  introduce  a 
moderately  long  one.  If  he  inclines  to  write  long  sentences, 
let  him  introduce  among  them  sentences  that  are  brief  and 
pointed.  A  succession  of  periods  should  be  interrupted  by 


FORCE.  459 

looser  forms,  and  in  a  succession  of  loose  sentences  a  sus- 
pended sentence  should  now  and  then  appear. 

7.  Force  of  Single  Sentences  in  a  Paragraph.  —  Force  in 
the  sentence,  as  in  the  paragraph,  presents  two  kinds  of 
problems,  —  problems  of  position  and  structure  of  parts, 
and  problems  of  choice  among  words,  sounds,  and  figures. 
(1)  Important  words  should  be  so  placed  that  the  reader 
cannot  help  emphasizing  them.  (2)  Unimportant  words 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  refuse  emphasis  when  read.  Em- 
phasis is  secured  to  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  by  placing  it 
out  of  its  usual  position  in  the  sentence.  The  positions  most 
naturally  emphatic  in  the  sentence  are  at  the  end  and  at 
the  beginning.  There  is  in  every  good  sentence  one  point 
at  which  the  emphasis  culminates ;  that  point  should  be 
occupied  by  the  most  important  expression.  But  emphasis 
must  be  varied,  or  (3)  we  have  monotony  of  structure. 
When  (4)  an  unexpected  change  of  construction  is  made, 
or  (5)  awkward  constructions  are  introduced,  there  is  loss 
of  force  and  of  emphasis.  (6)  Since  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence is  a  naturally  strong  position,  it  should  not  be  surren- 
dered to  an  unimportant  phrase  or  clause.  (7)  Construc- 
tions borrowed  from  another  language,  by  violating  the 
English  word-order,  dissipate  or  divert  the  emphasis  and 
weaken  the  force  of  the  sentence.  (8)  Condensation  of 
clauses  to  phrases,  or  of  phrases  to  single  words,  will  often 
strengthen  a  sentence.  Weakness  results  when  (9)  the 
terms  employed  are  too  general,  when  (10)  unimportant 
words  are  repeated,  when  (11)  there  is  an  unintended  jingle 
of  sounds  or  a  queer  combination  of  sounds.  There  are, 
also,  (12)  expressions  that  are  weak  in  themselves,  from 
having  been  used  loosely  or  indefinitely  for  a  long  time. 
(13)  Finally,  faulty  figures  are  a  source  of  weakness.  We 
shall  take  up  in  order  these  thirteen  violations  of  Force 
requirements. 


460  THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

(1)  Important  words  should  occupy  emphatic  positions.     Em- 
phasis is  sometimes  secured  by  inversion.      (See  page  50.) 
Emphasis  is  sometimes  gained  by  changing  a  declarative  to 
an  exclamatory  or  an  interrogative  sentence. 

Washington  encamped  for  the  winter,  with  the  remnant  of  his 
army,  in  a  small  valley  near  the  city  in  which  his  enemies  swarmed ; 
but  the  weather  was  so  cold  that  he  was  in  no  danger  of  attack. 
[Better,  —  The  small  valley  in  which  Washington  with  the  rem- 
nant of  his  army  encamped  for  the  winter,  was  near  the  city  in 
which  his  enemies  swarmed  ;  but  the  weather,  etc.] 

This  is  not  true  of  any  other  country.  [Better,  —  Of  no  other 
country  is  this  true.] 

(2)  Lad  '>/'<  nijthasis  on  important  words:  — 

It  is  remarkable  that  although  Washington  had  that  excessive 
pride  in  his  high  position  which  is  shown  in  his  portrait,  he  always 
evinced  the  deepest  interest  in  the  humblest  of  his  soldiers.  [Better, 
—  It  is  remarkable  that,  although  Washington's  pride  in  his  high 
position,  as  shown  in  his  portrait,  was  excessive,  he  always  evinced, 
etc.] 

Of  course  in  America,  where  the  names  college  and  university 
are  applied  indiiferently  to  the  same  institution,  the  term  degree 
has  lost  its  exactness  and  is  but  a  seeming  parallel  to  the  term  as 
used  originally  in  the  older  universities  of  Europe.  [Better,  — 
And  its  identity  with  the  term  as  used  originally  in  the  older  uni- 
versities of  Europe  is  only  apparent.] 

We  see  frankness  and  honesty  in  this  face.  [Better,  —  What  we 
see  in  this  face  is  frankness  and  honesty.] 

His  fall  was  sad.     {Better,  —  How  sad  his  fall !] 

This  will  not  be  denied.     [Better,  —  Will  any  one  deny  this?] 

(3)  Monotonous  Recurrence  of  the  Same  Structure.     Vary 
the  emphasis  by  varying  the  structure. 

That  Washington  was  a  great  general,  we  know ;  that  he  was 
an  honest  statesman,  we  are  certain  ;  that  he  was  never  moved  by 
-h  ambition,  history  proves.     [Better,  —  We  know  that  Wash- 
ington was  a  great  general ;  that  he  was  an  honest  statesman,  we 


FORCE.  461 

are  certain ;  and  history  proves  that  he  was  never  moved  by  selfish 
ambition.] 

(4)  Unexpected  change  of  construction.    In  similar  parts  of 
the  sentence,  use  the  same  construction. 

The  Indians  make  signals  by  covering  the  fire  until  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  smoke  is  accumulated,  and  it  is  then  allowed  to  ascend 
in  short  puffs.  [Better,  —  And  then  allowing  it  to  ascend,  etc.] 

The  young  man's  fists  were  impressing  his  arguments  on  the 
radiator  more  forcibly  perhaps  than  he  will  ever  be  able  to  impress 
them  in  a  less  literal  sense.  [Better,  —  than  he  will  ever  be  able 
to  impress  them  on  the  public.] 

She  saw  them  striving  to  find  the  unknown  and  that  they  never 
found  it.  [Better,  —  but  never  Jinding  it.] 

The  women's  parlors  are  admirably  adapted  for  social  gather- 
ings as  well  as  a  retreat  for  the  weary.  [Better,  —  They  are  also 
a  retreat  for  the  weary.] 

We  know  of  his  irreproachable  character  and  that  he  is  not 
capable  of  such  a  deed.  [Better,  —  We  know  that  his  character 
is  irreproachable  and  that  he  is  not  capable  of  such  a  deed.] 

He  saw  his  danger  and  that  another  step  would  be  fatal.  [Bet- 
ter, —  He  saw  that  his  position  was  dangerous  and  that,  etc. ;  or, 
He  saw  his  danger  and  the  fatality  of  another  step.] 

(5)  Awkward  constructions  are  shown   in   the  following 
sentences : — 

The  building  is  of  brownstone,  having  been  erected  two  years 
ago..  [Better, — The  building  is  of  brownstone  and  was  erected 
two  years  ago.] 

There  is  no  need  of  discussing  the  question  of  how  it  happened. 
[Better,  —  There  is  no  need  of  discussing  how  it  happened.] 

I  came  in  contact  with  creatures  whose  existence,  as  possible, 
had  never  occurred  to  me.  [Better,  —  creatures  the  possibility  of 
whose  existence,  etc.] 

The  air  becomes  vitiated  and  without  any  life-giving  qualities. 
[Better,  —  and  loses  its  life-giving  qualities.] 

The  desks  follow  the  shape  of  the  wall,  thus  causing  them  to 
assume  the  form  of  concentric  curves.  [Better,  —  assuming  the 
form  of  concentric  curves.] 


462          THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

(6)  Avoid  weak  or  abrupt  endings.  An  important  thought 
at  the  close  of  a  sentence  requires  a  volume  of  sound  corre- 
sponding to  the  sense. 

The  change  would  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  all  students, 
that  is,  to  those  who  regularly  study  on  Sunday,  at  least. 
[Better,  —  The  change  would  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  all 
students,  and  especially  to  those  who  regularly  study  on  Sun- 
day.] 

Let  those  who  are  ambitious  to  win  place  or  power,  worry. 
[Better,  —  Let  those  worry  who,  etc.] 


(7)  A  construction  borrowed  from  another  language 
be  changed  to  the  natural  word-order  of  English. 

Under  the  then  existing  circumstances,  nothing  could  be 
done.  [Better,  —  Under  the  circumstances  then  existing,  noth- 
ing could  be  done.] 

The  too  great  distance  of  the  proposed  field  from  the  cam- 
pus is  another  objection.  An  admittedly  by  far  better  location 
is  on  High  Street.  [Better,  —  The  proposed  field  is  too  far  from 
the  campus.  It  is  admitted  that  High  Street  would  afford  a 
much  better  location.] 

We  ran  the  entire  gamut  of  our  at  that  time  possibilities. 
[Omit  at  that  time.'] 

He,  when  he  had  put  a  white  tie  on,  looked  around  for  his 
gloves.  [Better,  —  After  putting  on  a  white  tie,  he  looked  around 
for  his  gloves.] 

(8)  Force  is  gained  by  cutting  out  all  unnecessary  words. 
The  imperative  and  the  participle  are  means  of  condensation. 

The  Church  and  Parliament  were  opposed  to  his  claims  and 
created  a  strong  opposition.  [Better,  —  The  Church  and  Parlia- 
ment created  a  strong  opposition  to  his  claims.] 

Two  green  eyes  glared  at  him  through  the  darkness  and  came 
nearer  and  nearer,  and  when  he  was  about  to  call  for  help  he 
found  that  it  was  only  a  cat.  [Better,  —  Two  green  eyes  glared 
at  him  through  the  darkness  ;  nearer  and  nearer  they  came  ;  he 
was  about  to  call  for  help  when  he  found  that  it  was  only  a 
cat] 


FORCE.  463 

The  twenty-eight  hundred  students  assembled  [omit]  united  in 
giving  the  University  yell. 

If  you  will  only  coddle  him,  he  will  treat  you  well.  [Better,  — 
Coddle  him  and  he,  etc.] 

When  he  had  done  the  deed,  he  disappeared.  [Better,  —  The 
deed  done,  he  disappeared.] 

(9)  For  strength  use  particular  terms   instead  of  general 
terms. 

An  epidemic  existed  in  the  interior ;  the  inhabitants  were  dying 
in  large  numbers.  [Better, —  An  epidemic  was  raging  in  the 
interior ;  the  people  were  dying  by  thousands.] 

(10)  Avoid  needless  repetitions  of  the  same  word  and  dose 
repetitions  of  the  same  sound. 

Avoid  a  succession  of  monosyllables. 

Avoid  harsh  or  abrupt  endings. 

His  person  and  manner  were  ungracious  enough,  so  that  he  pre- 
vailed only  by  strength  of  his  reason,  which  was  enforced  with 
confidence  enough. 

Near  by  are  some  shells  thrown  up  by  the  waves  in  some  storm. 

It  is  only  comparative/^  recentfy  that  it  has  been  distinctly  seen 
by  astronomers. 

Certain  characteristics  are  certain  to  offend. 

Letting  our  eyes  fall  once  more  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  let 
us  look  more  carefully  at  the  scene. 

His  life  went  on  on  the  peaceful  lines  which  he  had  laid  down 
for  himself. 

A  simple-parted  man  with  nothing  to  influence  other  men  with 
but  goodness  of  heart. 

(11)  Euphony  is  violated  in  the  following  sentences :  — 
Recall  all  the  thrilling  incidents  of  that  day.     [Better,  —  Recol- 
lect, etc.] 

He  was  proud  of  the  learning  he  had  got.  [Better,  —  which  he 
had  acquired.] 

The  second  tumbril  empties  and  moves  off ;  the  third  comes  up. 
[Better,  —  approaches.] 

Such  changing  scenes.     [Better,  —  Such  varying  scenes.] 


464          THE  RHETORIC  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

(12)  A  verb  implying  action  is  more  forcible  than  a  verb 
passive  in  sense. 

Avoid  trite  and  meaningless  expressions,  like  —  If  I  may 
be  allowed  to  use  the  figure ;  Situated  as  it  is,  on  Lake 
Michigan,  etc. ;  very  nice ;  very  happy ;  as  it  were ;  I 
think ;  that  is  to  say ;  this  subject  is  very  important ;  the 
end  is  not  yet ;  suffice  it  to  say. 

Just  beyond  the  laboratory  is  a  storeroom,  so  to  speak  [omit], 
where  chemicals  and  apparatus  are  kept. 

The  Library  is  the  best  place  to  be  found  [omit]  for  collecting 
class-taxes. 

He  seemed  at  times  to  mock  at  reason,  defy  judgment,  and  lack 
[better,  —  break  through]  all  restraint. 

Near  the  palace  is  [better,  —  totters]  the  hovel. 

(13)  Beware  of  the  mixed  metaphor  and  the  anticlimax.     Do 
not  use  a  figure  unless  it  brings  strength  to  the  sentence. 

He  would  have  given  his  all  —  life  itself,  his  hopes,  his  prospects 
—  to  blot  out  that  deed.  [Anticlimax.  Put  life  tee// after  pros- 
pect*.] 

The  wildest  excitement  prevailed,  and  at  two  o'clock  the  hungry 
eyes  of  the  sailors  feasted  once  more  upon  dry  land.  [Mixed  meta- 
phor.] 

In  our  Teachers'  Association  will  be  found  many  of  the  wheel 
horses  who  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot. 

Life's  sunset  is  approaching.     [Better,  —  Life's  sun  is  setting.] 

The  plan  of  representing  the  character  of  the  surface  by  contour 
lines  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages  and,  like  the  Nebular 
Theory  [omit],  has  many  supporters. 

The  teacher  should  be  all  that  is  noble  and  pure.  The  children, 
those  blossoms  of  love  [omit],  are  constantly  looking  to  the  teacher 
for  guidance. 


INDEX. 


[THE  NUMBERS  REFER  TO  THE  PAGES  OF  THE  TEXT.] 


Abstract,  157-159. 

Accident  in  narrative,  128. 

Agriculture,  essay  subjects  in,  417. 

Allen,  James  Lane,  333. 

Ambiguity,  4.10. 

Amplifying  paragraphs,  89-91. 

Analysis,  137,  167. 

rhetorical,  382. 
Anticlimax,  464. 
Antithesis,  38. 
A  posteriori  argument,  180. 
Applying  a  principle,  44,  151. 
A  priori  argument,  17!». 
Argumentation,  1)1,  165-185. 
Argumentative  type,  4i'.  <;•_'. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  53,  87,  134,  2<k>. 
Art  of  composition,  1. 
Astronomy,  essay  subjects  in,  410. 
Atlantic,  113,  359. 
Audience,  17,  170,  172. 
Authority,  182. 

Bacon,  Francis,  40. 

Bagehot,  Walter,  48,  265. 

Bain,  Alexander,  :>s. 

Balanced  sentences,  38,  51,  468. 

Baltimore  American,  204. 

Barrie,  James  M.,  125. 

Begging  the  question,  184. 

Benson,  A.  C.,  {)•>,  341,  342. 

Besant,  Walter,  6. 

Birrell,  A.,  22. 

Bolingbroke,  90. 

Bombast,  455. 

Book  reviews,  164. 

Borrow,  George,  118, 120, 131, 250, 

251,  3<>8. 

Brackett,  William,  301. 
Brief-making,  171,  315,  321. 
Bryce,  James,  291,  358. 
Burke,  Edmund,  48,  52, 64, 297. 
Burroughs,  John,  333. 
But,  58,  83. 

Capitalization,  rules  for,  430. 
Carlisle,  John  Q.,  325. 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  27,  79,  149. 
Causes  and  results,  71,  147,  151 

169. 
Center  of  interest,  124. 


Century,  47. 
Characters,  127. 
Character  sketches,  80. 
Chicago  Graphic,  213. 
Circumstantial  evidence,  181. 
Clarke,  James  P.,  88. 
Classics,  essay  subjects  in,  404. 
Classification,   136,  137,  138,  141, 

142,  151. 

Clay,  Henry.  47. 
Clayton,  H.  H.,  :>:•,«». 
Clearness  of  sentence,  445,  455. 
Climax,  11(5,  124,  170. 
Coherence,  22. 
Comparison,  39,  151. 
Complication  of  plot,  122. 
Compositions,  whole,  91-185. 
Comprehensive  outline,  102. 
Concessions,  54. 
Concluding  paragraphs,  83,  87, 

!•_>»;. 

Conditions,  54. 
Connectives,  451. 
Conrad,  Joseph,  93,  340, 
Contemporary  Review,  264. 
Contiguity,  W,  148. 
Contrary,  37. 

Contrast,  54, 58,  99, 147,  151. 
Conversation,  131. 
Correction  marks,  422,  435-439. 
Criticism,  ir»«i. 
Curtis,  G.  W.,  68. 

Deductive  reasoning*,  176. 
Deductive  type,  63,  66. 
Definition,     37,      136,     137,      138, 

167. 
Definitive  essay,  140,  151. 

paragraph,  66. 

statements,  39. 
De  Quincey,  Thomas,  15,  56,  58, 

69,  88,  337,  356. 
Description,  92-112,  130, 153. 

preliminaries  to,  94. 
Descriptive  paragraphs,  72. 

sketches,  76. 

Details,  35,  60,  89,  94,  101. 
Developing  the  theme,  34-46. 
Dialogue,  131. 
Dickens,  Charles,  78. 


465 


466 


INDEX. 


References  are  to  pages. 


Didactic  essay,  164. 
Digression,  10,  131. 
Dilemma,  183. 
Directive  paragraphs,  88. 
Discourse,  unit  of,  5. 
Disentanglement  of  plot,  122. 
Division,  logical.  141. 
Divisions,  thought,  4. 
Drummond.  Henry,  37. 
Dryden,  John,  11. 

Earle,  John,  18. 

Echo,  :,i. 

Economics,    essay     subjects     in, 

405. 

Economy,  19. 
Editing.  4J1. 

Education,  essay  subjects  in.  41:!. 
Educational  Review,  267. 
Effects.  !':;.  '.»;,  KIJ,  103,  105,  106, 

108.  110.  -J41. 
Eliot.  George.  HM. 
Emerson.  R.  W.,  1,  20,  337. 
Emphasis,  58-4JO,  101. 
Enforcement,  44.  H7,  8l>,  151. 
Engineering,    essay    subjects    in, 

4  is. 

Engineering  News. 
English    language    and    litera- 
ture, essay  -Mil.j.-rts  in,  400. 
Entanglement  of  plot,  122. 
Episodes,  i:;i. 
Essays,  91-185. 

tl.-tinitive,  140,  151. 

didactic,  164. 

familiar,  \*A. 

inductive.  l."»l. 
Essay  subjects,  classified  list  of, 

4<H). 

Euphony,  463. 

Evidence,  circumstantial,  181. 
Examples,  38,  40,  90,  182. 
Expert  testimony,  182. 
Explanation,  l.v.t. 
Explicit  reference,  54,  83. 
Exposition.  <U,  ]  •_':$,  133-165. 
Expository  paragraphs,  68,  71. 
Expository  type,  #2. 

"Facts."  169.  181. 
Familiar  essay.  164. 
Farrar,  Frederic  W.,  36. 
Ferree.  Barr.  10. 
Fiske.  John,  9,  17. 
Flaws  in  reasoning,  165-184. 
For.  59. 
Force,  456. 


Forestry,  essay  subjects  in,  417. 
Freeman.  Edward  A.,  335. 
Froude,  James  A.,  280. 
Fundamental  image,  105. 

Gald6s,  332. 

Gardiner,  Samuel  R.,  86. 

Generalized  description,133, 153, 

Generalized  narration,  153. 

Green,  John  R.,  73,  80. 

Grote.  George,  51. 

Grouping,  102,  147. 

Hale.  E.  E.,  334. 

Hamerton.  P.  G.,  5,  338. 

Hamilton.  Sir  Wm..  39,  69. 

Harrison,  F..  4± 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  110,  346. 

Hence,  17± 

Higginson.  Thomas  W.,  359. 

History,  essay  subjects  in,  405. 

Horticulture,    essay   subjects  in, 

Howells,  W.  D.,  110,  239,  335,  342. 
Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  39,  135,  334. 

Illustration,  39,  70. 
Images.  92.  93,  106, 110. 

fundamental,  105. 
Impressions,  105,  108. 
Incident,  paragraphs  of,  74. 
Indication  of  effects,  93,  96,  102, 

103.  10.*).  UH5.  10X.  110.  -J41. 
Inductive  essay.  \:,l. 
Inductive  reasoning.  174. 
Inductive  type,  64,  66. 
Inferences.  169,  175. 
Infinitive.  4:-». 
Interpretation,  159. 
Introductory  paragraphs,  83, 86. 
Introductory  sentences,  47. 
Inversion.  .M». 
Isolated  paragraph,  8.  27. 
It,  W. 

James,  Henry.  7 

James,  William 

Jefferies.  Richard.  Ill,  339,  343. 

Jessup.  ji»7. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  '24. 

King.  C.,  •_•<;•_'. 

Kingsley,  38,  240,  260,  369. 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  77, 104. 

Lamb,  Charles.  49. 
Laws  of  the  paragraph,  10-27. 
Lecky.  W.  E.  H.,  352. 
Lettsom,  W.  N.,  240. 


INDEX. 


467 


References  are  to  pages. 


Logical  definition,  138. 

division,  141. 

type,  62. 

London  Spectator,  30,  289. 
Long1  sentences,  457. 
Loose  sentences,  457. 
Lowell,  J.  B.,  50,  58,  87. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  14,  16,  21,  23,  39, 
57,  59,  60,  61,  84,  89,  154,  178, 
185,  299,  313. 

McCarthy,  Justin,  2. 

Mann,  Horace,  30. 

Marshall,  John,  349,  362,  364. 

Mass,  18,  19. 

Mathematics,  essay  subjects  in, 
416. 

Mazzini,  Joseph,  13. 

Mead,  43,  45,  68,  72. 

Means  of  developing:,  34-49. 

Metaphor,  mixed,  4<14. 

Method,  22-24,  85,  91,  94,  99,  150, 
151,  171. 

Misrelated  participle,  449. 

Modern  languages  and  litera- 
tures, essay  subjects  in,  403. 

Monotony,  38. 

Morison,  J.  Cotter,  4. 

Morley,  John,  14. 

Motives,  !•*.). 

Movement  in  narrative,  130. 

Murray,  J.  C.,  268. 

Narration,  112-133,  153. 
Narrative,  accident  in,  128. 

surprise  in,  128. 
Narrative  paragraphs,  72. 
New  York  Evangelist,  362. 
New  York  Evening  Post,  69. 
New  York  Press,  31. 
New  York  Sun,  267. 
New  York  Tribune,  311. 
Non  sequitur,  177. 
Note-taking,  158. 

Oastler,  234. 

Objections,  meeting,  169, 170, 176- 

183. 

Observation,  94. 
Obstacle,  120,  121. 
Order,  22-24,  85,  91,94,  99,  102, 150, 

151,  171. 

Organic  structure,  2. 
Outline,  comprehensive,  102. 
Outlining1,  2-8, 99,  141-150, 171-174, 

274-279,  301,  315-321. 
Outlook,  288. 


Paragraph,  definitive,  66, 

laws  of,  10-27. 

rhetoric  of,  440-464. 

structure,  types  of,  62-81. 

subject,  27. 

theme,  28. 

title,  28. 

unity,  10,  113,  440. 
Paragraphs,  amplifying,  89-91.  ' 

concluding,  83,  87,  126. 

of  incident,  74. 

introductory,  83,  86. 

isolated,  8,  27. 

related,  82,  83. 

transitional,  88. 
Parallel  construction,  51. 
Paraphrase,  156,  157. 
Participle,  misrelated,  449. 
Particulars  and  details,  35,  60. 
Pater.  Walter,  74,  235,  341. 
Periodic  sentences,  457. 
Perspicuity,  445. 
Persuasion,  92. 

I  Plot,  n«»,  r_'_(. 

Point  of  view,  96. 
Points  at  issue,  170. 
Politics,  essay  subjects  in,  405. 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  107. 
Portrait  sketches,  78. 
Position  of  words,  460,  462. 
Powderly,  T.  V.,  205. 
Preliminaries  to  description,  94. 
Presumption,  184. 
Principle,  applying  a,  44,  151. 
Process  of  exposition,  137. 
Prominence,  58,  59, 99. 
Pronouns,  54,  452. 
Proof- reading,  421. 
Proofs,  1<>8,  169-182. 
Proportion,  18. 
Proposition.  166. 
Prospective  reference,  54, 83,  88. 
Proximity,  99,  148. 
Punctuation,  56,  430. 

Beading  and  reflection,  167. 
Beading  of  signs,  181. 
Beading,  supplementary,  393. 
Seasoning,  62-66,  174-176. 

deductive,  176. 

flaws  in,  165-184. 

inductive,  174. 
Beasons,  presenting,  42. 
Beductio  ad  absurdum,  185. 
Beference  books,  list  of,  397. 
Beference,  explicit,  54,  83. 

prospective,  54,  83,  88. 


468 


INDEX. 


References  are  t<< 


Reference  words,  ;,; 

Refutation,  Ki'.i.  17o.  17(^-184. 

Related  paragraphs,  82,  83. 

Repetition,  i*J,  53,  87,  450. 

Reporting:,  421. 

Retrospective  reference 
N, 

Rhetorical  analysis 

Rhetoric  of  the  paragraph,  382. 

Richards,  Theodore.  _'7(.». 

Ruskin.  John,  31,  38,  47,  61,  63,  70, 
IS,  99,  100,  103,  13;;,  i4_',  MO, 
I'll.  1  »••_».  163,  264,336,361. 

Russell.  W.  C.,  102,  109,  240,  242. 

Sciences,  essay  subjects  in,  414. 
Scott,  Walter,  5*7,  10:<.  1  •_••_'. 
Selection,  i:s.  nu.  i',v 
Sentences,  50,  56,  58,  59,  ' 

balanced,  38,  51,  458. 

introductory,  47. 

long,  457. 

loose,  457. 

periodic,  457. 

short,  456. 

summarizing,  48. 

transitions] ,  47. 
Sentence  structure,  modification 

of,  4«Mil. 
Sentence  unity 
Sequence,  ±_'.  io_>.  114. 
Setting.  ; 

Shairp,  John  C.,  90. 
Shakespeare.  _Ml. 
Shauck.  j 

Shelley,  Percy  B..  HS,  236. 
Short  sentences.  \:*\. 
Signs.  LSI. 
Sketches,  76,  78,  80. 
Solution  of  plot 

Specific  instances,  40,  68, 151, 182. 
Speeches 

Spelling  Reform  Circular 
Spencer,  Herbert,  l«».  t'A. 
Squinting  construction.  44*;. 
Statements,  definitive,  39. 
Stedman,  E.  C.,84. 
Stephen.  Leslie,  351. 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  36,  74,  76,  153, 

MO. 

Stones,  383-386. 
Structure,  organic,  2. 
Subject  of  paragraph.  -J7. 
Subordination.  54.  58,  60,  443. 
Suggestive  expressions,  110. 
Summarizing  sentences 
Supplementary  reading,  393. 


Surprise  in  narrative,  128. 
Suspense,  li*». 

Swinburne,  Algernon  C.,  38 
Syllogism,  176.  17«.». 
Synonyms,  use  of,  53. 

Testimony,  expert,  182. 
Testing  proofs,  169. 
Thackeray,  Wm.  M.,  -J94. 
Theme  of  paragraph 

HUMUS  of  developing,  34-46. 
Themes,  directions  for  preparing, 

4«x>. 

"Theory  of  the  case,"  181. 
Therefore,  17_'. 
Thompson,  Maurice.  70. 
Thoreau,  Henry  D.,  :v.  40. 
Thought-divisions,  4. 
Title  of  paragraph 
Topic-statement.  •_'*-:  4. 
Tourg^e,  A.  W.,  ln.1. 
Transitional  paragraphs,  88. 
Transitional  sentences.  47. 
Traveler's  point  of  view,  97. 
Trevelyan.  O.  O..  313. 
Turning-point,  125. 
Tyndall,  John,  146,  366. 
Type,  deductive,  63, 66. 

inductive,  64,  66. 

logical.  •;•_'. 
Types  of  paragraph  structure, 

B-4L 

Types    of   whole    composition, 
'.H-185. 

Unit  of  discourse,  .". 

Unity  of  paragraph,  10,  96,  110. 

11.'..  114,440. 
Unity  of  sentence,  44L'. 

Variety,  24. 

Vincent,  Prank,  98,  236. 

Walker.  Francis  A 
Wallace,  Alfred  R.,  355. 
Warner,  C.  D..  •_".*;. 
Webster.  Daniel,  23. 
Wendell.  Barrett,  18, 19. 
White,  Gilbert,  95. 
Whitney.  Wm.  D.,  324. 
Whittier.  John  Q.,  280. 
Who.  which,  that,  452. 
Will,  shall.  4:»4. 
Wolseley,  Lord,  29. 
Word-order.  4<;-_>. 
Words  of  reference,  54,  83. 
Would,  should,  454. 


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